kitap 1 - "OTTOMAN ART AND THE CULTURE "Glorious face of the Ottoman Empire. " By UMUT ARABUL-2013

9,8,2016 OTTOMAN ART AND THE CULTURE "Glorious face of the Ottoman Empire. " By UMUT ARABUL-2013 OTTOMAN ART AND THE CULTURE "Glorious face of the Ottoman Empire." By UMUT ARABUL-2013 ~INDex ~ OTTOMAN ARCHİTECTURE . PALACES, MOSQUES BAZAARS OF ISTANBUL . EDIRNE . BURSA . Outside of TURKEY ~ OTTOMAN ARTS . CALLIGRAPHY . EBRU / ART OF MARBLING . EMBROIDERY . CERAMICS . MINIATURES . JEWELLERY. --------------THE ART OF JEWELRY IN THE OTTOMAN COURT . RUGS AND CARPETS . FELT . COSTUMES . SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY ~ CAMPAIGNS and THE ARMY . ARMY And MILITARY RANKS . MEHTER . CAMPAIGNS ~HAREM, AND THE OTTOMAN WOMEN . Harem in the Ottoman . Historical Background . Harem Populations . Harem Womens And Politics ~ATATÜRK --OTTOMAN ARCHİTECTURE— The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, was derived from two main sources. One was the rather complex development of new architectural forms that occurred all over Anatolia, especially at Manisa, Iznik, Bursa, and Selçuk in the 14th and early 15th centuries. In addition to the usual mosques, mausoleums, and madrasahs, a number of buildings called tekke s were constructed to house dervishes (members of mystical fraternities) and other holy men who lived communally. The tekke (or zeviye) was often joined to a mosque or mausoleum. The entire complex was then called a külliye. All these buildings continued to develop the domed, central-plan structure, constructed by the Seljuqs in Anatolia. The other source of Ottoman architecture is Christian art. The Byzantine tradition, especially as embodied in Hagia Sophia, became a major source of inspiration. Byzantine influence appears in such features as stone and brick used together or in the use of pendentive dome construction. Also artistically influential were the contacts that the early Ottomans had with Italy. Thus, in several mosques at Bursa, Tur., there are stylistic parallels in the designs of the exterior facade and of windows, gates, and roofs to features found in Italian architecture. A distinctive feature of Ottoman architecture is that it drew from both Islamic and European artistic traditions and was, therefore, a part of both. The apogee of Ottoman architecture was achieved in the great series of külliyes and mosques that still dominate the Istanbul skyline: the Fatih külliye (1463–70), the Bayezid Mosque (after 1491), the Selim Mosque (1522), the Sehzade külliye (1548), and the Süleyman külliye (after 1550). The Sehzade and Süleyman külliyes were built by Sinan, the greatest Ottoman architect, whose masterpiece is the Selim Mosque at Edirne, Tur. (1569–75). All of these buildings exhibit total clarity and logic in both plan and elevation; every part has been considered in relation to the whole, and each architectural element has acquired a hierarchic function in the total composition. Whatever is unnecessary has been eliminated. This simplicity of design in the late 15th and 16th centuries has often been attributed to the fact that Sinan and many Ottoman architects were first trained as military engineers. Everything in these buildings was subordinated to an imposing central dome. A sort of cascade of descending half domes, vaults, and ascending buttresses leads the eye up and down the building's exterior. Minarets, slender and numerous, frame the exterior composition, while the open space of the surrounding courts prevents the building from being swallowed by the surrounding city. These masterpieces of Ottoman architecture seem to be the final perfection of two great traditions: a stylistic and aesthetic tradition that had been indigenous to Istanbul since the construction of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and the other Islamic tradition of domical construction dating to the 10th century. While mosques and külliyes are the most characteristic monuments of Ottoman architecture, important secular buildings were also built: baths, caravansaries, and especially the huge palace complex of Topkapi Saray at Istanbul, in which 300 years of royal architecture are preserved in its elaborate pavilions, halls, and fountains. İSTANBUL PALACES, MOSQUES AND BAZAARS OF ISTANBUL BEYLERBEYİ PALACE The area of Beylerbeyi on the Asian shore of the Bosphorus has been settled since Byzatine times. According to the famous 18th century traveller Inciciyan, Constantine the Great erected a cross here, after which the area was known as the Istavroz Gardens. Under the Ottomans tihis area was an imperial park or hasbahçe. Inciciyan relates that the name Beylerbeyi was given to this area in the 16th century because Mehmet Paşa who held the title of beylerbeyi (governor general) built a country house on the site. The sultans built several country houses and pavilions on the imperial estate here, and in 1829 Sultan Mahmud II built a wooden waterfront palace. Sultan Abdülaziz demolished this wooden palace to build the present Beylerbeyi Palace in 1861-1865. Designed by the well known Ottoman architect Sarkis Balyan, the palace was generally reserved for summer use by the sultans or to accommodate foreign heads of state visiting the Ottoman capital. The Prince of Serbia, the King of Montenegro, the Şah of Iran and Empress Eugenie of France are among the royla guests who stayed here. The deposed Sultan Abdülhamid II spent the last six months of his life and died here in 1918. The interior design of Beylerbeyi Palace is a synthesis of diverse western and eastern styles, although the layout of the rooms follows that of the traditional Turkish house, consisting of a central sofa with closed rooms situated at the four corners. The furnishing and decoration of the Selamlık or public apartments are more ornate than those of the Harem. The palace consists of two main storeys and a basement containing kitchens and store rooms. The palace has three entrances, six state rooms and 26 smaller rooms. The floors are covered with rush matting from Egypt which protected the inhabitants against damp in winter and heat in summer. Over this are laid large carpets and kilims, mostly made at Hereke. The furnishings include exquisite Bohemian crystal chandeliers, French clocks, and Chinese, Japanese, French and Turkish Yıldız porcelain vases. One of the features which distinguishes Beylerbeyi from other Ottoman palaces of the period are the terraced gardens on the sloping hillside behind the palace. There are two pavilions on these terraces, the Sarı Köşk beside the pool on the upper terrace, and the Mermer Köşk with its interior fountain and marble walls, which provided a cool refuge in the summer heat. The Mermer Köşk, the large pool on the lower terrace and the tunnel are the only parts of the palace remaining from the earlier timber palace of Beylerbeyi. The attractive Ahır Köşk is a fascinating example of Ottoman palace stables, and of particular interest as the only such building to have survived in its original state. The old coastal road passed under a long tunnel constructed during the reign of Mahmud II (1808-1839) so that the palace would not be separated from the terraced gardens behind. This is a unique feature, other palaces and mansions along the Bosphorus being connected to their back gardens and parks by bridges. Today this tunnel houses a cafeteria and sales points for visitors. As well as books, postcards and posters published by the Culture and Information Centre, various gifts and souvenirs are on sale here. The gardens are available for private receptions upon advance application. DOLMABAHÇE PALACE Dolmabahce Palace, alongside with the Yildiz Palace, was the last residence of the Sultans until the Fall of the Ottoman Empire and the Declaration of the Turkish Republic in 1924. During the years 1720-1890, the Ottoman art diviated from the principles of classical architecture. In the Lale (Tulip) period, Ottoman art was under the influence of ornamental decoration styles from the West. Baroque, Roccoco, Ampir, Gothic, and Romanesque styles intermingled with classical form of art and architecture. Characterisitic features of this hybrid style were fountain structures. This arabesque form took on an eclecticism. One of the early examples of this mixture of Turkish and Western syle is the Aksaray Valide mosque. The palace was built on a picnic spot, hence the name Dolmabahce for the palace (Dolma= Stuffed meal, a favourite picnic dish in Turkish culture; Bahce= garden). But this place is not without myths. The place on which Dolmabahce Palace has been erected is believed to be the spot where the Argonaut ship, the mythical Argos, has anchored while on its quest for the Golden Fleece. This is also the spot where Sultan Mehmet II. (the 'Conqueror'), during the siege of Istanbul, is believed to have brought his fleet on land in order to reach the Golden Horn and to prepare for the last and decisive attack.Dolmabahce Palace was surrounded by summer Pavilions, mansions, and villas in the Ottoman period. When the Sultan Mahmut II. abandoned the Topkapi Palace, finding the residence confining and distant from the actual Istanbul, he repaired the elaborately decorated Old Palace,also known as the Besiktas Coast Palace, and used it as a court residence. In 1843, Sultan Abdulmecit I. appointed his Architects, the Armenian Karabet and Nikogos Balyan brothers, to built grander palace in the place of the Old Palace. The Palace, erected in place where once the Old Palace and the picnic spots were, was finished in 1856 and Sultan Abdulmecit took up residence in the palace the same year. The exterior appearance of the palace is dominated by the central Reception Room and wings that contain the public and private (harem) rooms. The palace extends into the Bosphorus and has a 600 metre long splendidly decorated quay. Unlike the traditional terraced gardens, the gardens of the palace are located on a flat area. The palace is surrounded by high walls and is accessed through two main gates: the Treasury and the Regal gates. Both gates have columns ornamented with rosettes, oyster shells, leaves and branches, and strings of pearls, and are framed by a central arch. The gate pediments are decorated with roses, wreaths, and vases. Above the Treasury Gate is the tughra (the Sultan's individual signature) of Sultan Abdulmecit I. dating from 1853 under which a coupled from the poet Zivyer is inscribed. The tughra on the Regal Gate is again Sultan Abdulmecit's signature but dates back to 1854. The palace itself is built of marble from the Marmara island, and of prophyry from the quarries of Bergama. The main influences on its exterior style are Baroque and Gothic form of architectures. The exterior walls are made of solid stone whereas the interior walls are built with bricks.Together with its basement, the three storey palace, covering an area of 110.000 squaremetres, has 285 rooms, 46 salons, 6 balconies, 68 toilet rooms, and 6 Turkish baths. The interior layout of the palace is simple and cohesive, the rooms are grouped in straightforward line and open to a large chamber. Thus, for example, each room of the Harem wing opens to a large chamber, the common meeting room of the wing. This layout is traditional, a central indoor courtyard surrounded by private rooms. The furnishings and decoration inside the palace were done by the famous designer Sechan, whose other designs include the Paris Opera. The ceilings are high and are painted with sectioned frescos. The whole building is covered with the most precious carpets in the world, the Hereke carpets. The carpets cover a total area of 4454 squaremetres. The dominant decorative pieces within the palace are made of crystal. Bohemian and Baccarat chandeliers and fireplaces give the salons an extra sparkle. The Holiday Reception Room (the 'Muayede' Salon) in Dolmabahce palace houses the grandest chandelier in the world - a 4.5 ton gift of the English Queen Victoria made of the finest crystal. Another interesting piece made of crystal is the staircase in the entrance that leads to the second floor. Later additions to the palace are the Mosque of the Queen Mother, the Clock Tower built under the reign of Sultan Abdulhamit II., the Crown Prince Chamber, the treasury, Eunuch chambers, the Glass Pavilion, a pharmacy, a pattiserie, and a pastry kitchen. The palace had additional buildings, like the stables, carriage buildings, and servants' lodgings, stretching almost one kilometre long on either side of the palace. On religious festivals the Sultan would accept greetings from foreign ambassadors and high-ranking Ottoman officials (there was no class of nobility in the Ottoman social structure). For this occassion the golden throne would be brought from the Topkapi palace and located within the grandest hall, the Holiday Reception Room (the 'Muayede' Salon) on the second floor. The room is a marvel in itself with its stately 2000 squaremetre area, its 56 columns, its 36 metre high dome and the enourmous chandelier, mentioned above, hanging from the dome ceiling.Although the exterior of the palace looks western, the interior is more familiar with the Turkish culture, and the most popular example that symbolizes this culture is the Harem. The Harem wing (the 'Harem-i Humayun', the Imperial Harem in Turkish) is no longer secluded within high walls but the traditional conception of the secrecy of the familiy was not abandoned - the harem remained as a seperate wing in the palace and no stranger could enter the wing. Yet the wing was not a small one either, it constitutes 2/3 of the whole rooms in the palace. This wing had its own reception room, the Mabeyn Salon (the traditional Harem community chamber), which was the equivalent to the Muayede Salon (the traditional selamlik chamber for men). Both rooms lie next to each other but are seperated with mahogany and iron doors. The Harem has again the traditional structure: the biggest room belonged to the Mother Sultan. The surface of area of the rooms are determined according to the rank of the consort witin the harem structure, these were followed by the eunuch haremagasi and kizlaragasi, the heirs', and the chambermaids' rooms. The building was originally heated with braziers and firestoves, but tile stoves were used too in the later periods. The entrance halls were heated by stoves that were in the basement. During the years 1910-12 the palace has been wired with electricity and a central heating system was added as the main heating system. Besides being a museum, the Palace hosts receptions and concerts in its grand halls. The palace was the last residence of Ataturk, who used his own humble room instead of the grand rooms in the palace. Ataturk's private wing is not normally on exhibition. TOPKAPI PALACE The first palace to be built by the Ottomans after the conquest of Istanbul in 1453 was in Beyazit. This later became known as the Old Palace or Saray-i Atik-i Amire. Overlooking the entrance to the Golden Horn and dominating the skyline of much of the city as it did, the site seemed auspicious. But, some say it lost its favor being too near to the commercial heart of the old capital of Byzantium, while others claim that a new palace became necessary as this hastily-built first imperial residence proved inadequate as a center for the head of state. The chosen site for the new palace was on a promontory overlooking the confluence of the Istanbul waters, the Marmara, the Golden Horn and the Bosphorus, on the so-called first hill of the city. The promontory was already surrounded by the old sea walls of pre- Ottoman times. By adding a wall across the land side, which they called Sur-i Sultani, the Ottomans turned the ancient acropolis of Constantinople into an ideal site for a royal palace, set apart from the city and configured for easy defense. Then the foundations for the 'New Palace' or Saray-y Cedid-i Amire, that complex of buildings which grew organically over the centuries, were laid. Repeated additions to the Palace resulted in a vast sprawl of buildings clustered over the site, including the hermetic Harem complex and a number of sections for chamberlains, stewards and the many hundreds of palace staff. Behind the sea walls were a number of pavilions, which along with lodges outside the walls and some actually perched on the wall itself, were known by Westerners as the summer harem. These shore residences, the best known of which were the Yalikosku, Sepetciler Kasri, Incili Kosk and the Topkapi Pavilion, were built at various periods along the sea walls between Sirkeci and Ahirkapi.The Topkapi or Cannon Gate Pavilion was a wooden building that stood at the cannon gate in the sea walls. We know this particular pavilion, popularly called the Topkapi Saray, or Topkapi Palace, was restored by Mahmut II, and it was only when it was destroyed by fife during the reign of Abdulaziz in 1862 that the name seems to have been adopted for all of the Grand Seraglio. An inscription belonging to the original "Topkapi Saray" is now preserved in the Topkapi Palace. Looking at the Grand Seraglio, we see that it appears to consist of a series of courtyards, four in all, around which are clustered groups of buildings, mainly one- story structures sprawling away from a central square. Additions over the centuries to the nucleus of the Palace made to accommodate a growing court entourage apparently disregard any conscious plan. Each building bears the decorative features of its respective era, too, and so in all, the Seraglio presents an impressive spectrum of styles, both architectural and decorative, over four centuries, from the 15th to the 19th century. The most logical way to approach any description of the Palace would be to start at the outermost gate and move inwards through the various courts to the inner sanctum, the sultan's private apartments, the harem and the privy gardens. This was the first great Turkish complex to be built on an urban scale in the city after the conquest. The patron was Mehmet (Fatih) (1451-1481) himself. The architect is known as Atik Sinan. with which lakab - pseudonym-he is general-ly distinguished from Koca Sinan, the great classical architect. Construction of the complex took place between 1463-1470. Architecturally it is one of the most well-integrated and successful groups of buildings of its type on that scale. Among the auxiliary buildings were a school, library, hospital, caravansaray, imaret and hamam, little trace of which however survives today. The site of the mosque was originally that of a church (Hagion Apostolon) during the Byzantine period, and the site of the imperial cemetery. Excavations carried out during the building of the mosque revealed the tombs of the emperors, which were transferred to the courts of Topkapi Palace and are now in the Archeological museum. A French traveller visiting Istanbul in about 1540, (Nicolas de Nicolay) records the splendid appearance of the mosque and the fact that it had an annual income of 60,000 Ducats. The writer also men-dons the existance of lodgings around the mosque for the imam and other members of the clergy, as well as hundreds of dwellings in the vicinity set aside for visitors to the city of every race and religion free of charge. When built, the complex covered 10 kms2 which made it the largest complex in existance in the city. Much of it was destroyed during a serious earthquake in 1766. The mausoleum was first restored by Mustafa III (1767-1771). The mosque itself was altered some time later to take on its pre-sent foim. The architect of the present building was Mehmet Tahir. The new mosque was opened to prayer on 15 April 1772. The frontal court of the mosque is original, as are the faience panels over the windows of the mosque. The court Is surrounded by a columned arcade, in which 18 granite columns support 22 cupolas. The main dome of the mosque is flanked by four semidomes and four cupolas flanking them. The main dome rests on arches separated by four piers. The earliest plan of the mosque is not altogether certain, although we way gain sOme idea of how it may have been from the sources, among them some il-lustrated. There appears to have been a large central dome with a semi dome on the mihrab wall and three cupolaed sec-lions on the flanking walls.The paired minarets, each with one gallery, of the original mosque were preserved during the restoration, only to have a second gallery added during the 19 century.Contained in a cemetry behind the mihrab wall are the tombs of Mehmet I and the sultana Gülbahar. Flanking these to either side were medreses and other auxiliary buildings which have since been demolished or changed beyond reconition. SULEYMANIYE MOSQUE Mosque is located in a neighbourhood of Eminonu named after it Suleymaniye. It was built by Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent in 1557 and designed by Achitect Sinan. The Suleymaniye complex is represented the second and most important stage in an achitectural tradition which began with the Fatih Complex, namely symmetreical grouping and use of geometric shaping among the layout of the complex buildings. Of unprecedented size and architectural design, the Suleymaniye Complex is includes a mosque, medrese, hospital, lunatic asylum, infirmary,toms,hamam,market and a primary school. The Suleymaniye Mosque is an awesome work of art, dating from a time when Ottoman state was at its most splendid. Grandeur symbolised the period. The mosque, which were the most important feature of the silhouette of Istanbul, were not just places of worship. The complexes and neighbourhoods which surrounded them made them into focus of social and cultural life, an institution which characterised city life. The Suleymaniye Mosque and Complex incorporate the art and genius of Architect Sinan, the greatness and strength of the Ottomans and the beauty and elegance of Istanbul. During the construction of the mosque one of the largest building suplly sheds in the history and architecture was realised. The supplies brought from all corners of the Empire. The columns found in some ancient ruins were detached, brought to Istanbul and used in the interior of the Mosque. The mosque is surrounded by an outer courtyard with the kiblah, or direction to Mecca, being on one side along with an enclosed cemetery containing graves and a mausoleum; the opposite side to the kiblah contains an inner courtyard. The marble-covered inner courtyard is entered through a magnificent three-storey door the likes of which are seen in no other mosque in Istanbul. The courtyard contains a pool and water-jet fountain. Again unlile the other mosques, the four mimarets stand in the four corners of the courtyard. The proportion exhibited by the minarets and the domes is a product of genius. The domes rise from the ground to a height of 50meters, and the minarets located where the courtyard meets the walls of the mosque have three galleries and are 76 meters high. The minarets located at the side of the courtyard with the entrance have to galleries and are 56 meters high. This proportion is the key to the perfection of the mosques silhouette. The mosque has a main dome supported by two half-domes. Due to the design of the domes, the acoustics within the mosque are exceptionarlly clear. The air circulation within the mosque is also exceptional and the space above the entrance is illumunated by 4000 candles. Soot obtained from the candles is one of the raw materials the making of ink used for calligraphy The marble pulpit and mosque niche are works of art in the field of engraving and carving. The carved lectern of the preacher, windows and doors oıf wood inlaid with mother of pearl, stained glass windows and other decorative features of mosques are a low profile, the emphasis in the interior of the mosque is decoration through calligraphy. The medrese of the complex is found to the east and west of the mosque along the walls of the inner courtyard. To the west is the Evvel Medresse, Sani Medresse,Primary School,and Medical West, the Rabi Medresse and Salis Medresse are located to the east. The Darülhadis Medresse is found on the kiblah side of the mosque and runs paralled to the garden of Istanbul University. The hamam of the complex is located where Rabi Medresse and Darulhadis Medresse intersect. It is a single hamam for men only and was restored in 1980 after being used as a store room for a period. The clinic, hospital, mental asylum and infirmary are located in the northwest of the complex parallel to the kiblah. The soup kitchen of the complex the Darüzziyafe, functions today as a restaurant serving classical Turkish cuisine.The kiblah side of the mosque has a covered cemetery with a great number of graves, the toms of Suleyman, the magnificent and his wife Hürrem Sultan and a room for the keeper of the tombs. In the tomb belonging to Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent are the remains of Sultan Ahmed OO, his wife Rabia Sultan, daughters Mihrimah Sultan and Asiye Sultan, and Sultan Suleyman II and his mother Saliha Dilasub Sultan. SULTAN AHMED MOSQUE (BLUE MOSQUE) The Mosque of Sultan Ahmet owes its name to Ahmet 1 (1603-1617). It is without doubt the most beautiful masque of Istanbul. Travellers call this magnificient structure the "Blue Masque" because of the dominating blues of its interior. It was built across from the St. Sophia as a rival in 1609-16 by Sedefkar Mehmet Aja, chief architect of the Sultan. The Blue Masque has all the grace and delicate lines that are representative of masques in the Ottoman capital. St. Sophia, in its turn, is a grandiose expression, an imposing and dark Byzantine work. In the Blue Masque, the architect Mehmet Aja was inspired by the teachings of his master Koca Sinan and suppressed all disunity between its three naves. We enter the Masque by any one of three doors, the central one of which is the biggest. The interior plan consists of a rectangle measuring 51.65 meters on its longitudinal axis and 53.40 meters on its transversal. The central cupola has a diameter of 22.20 meters and its height at its Keystone measures 43 meters. The dame rests on four broken arches on four pendentives - these arches are topped by four spherical semi-domes which have three smaller spherical squinches at their base, except for the eastern side where there are only two. The four corners of the masque support four small dames. The pillars, of 5-meter diameters, are grooved and the fountains are built against the two pillars closest ta the entrance. A gallery is supported on three sides by short columns. All the walls, upto the main windows, are ornamented with green and blue earthenware. The mihrab and the mimber are in white marble from Marmara and are magnificiently sculptured. The masque is lit by 260 windows. OTTOMAN COMPLEXES IN ISTANBUL Eyup Sultan Complex: It is situated near the Eyup Quay. It is important from the standpoint of being the first building Sultan Mehmet the Conqueror had built after the conquest of Istanbul.It was built in the name of Ebu Eyyub el-Ensari in 1458. Fatih Complex: The Complex constructed by Architect Sinan'i Atik in 1462-1463- 1470 form the first step of Imperial Complexes. The mosque constitutes the center of the complex. Fatih Complex has been the leader of the classical Ottoman Complexes both from the standpoint of its monumental view and symmetrical arrangement of its buildings. Mahmut Pasha Complex: It is situated in Mahmutpasa. Sadrazam (Grand Vizier) Mahmut Pasha had Architect Sinan'i Atik built it between 1462-1467. Davud Pasha Complex: It is situated in Davutpasa. Davut Pasha had it built in 1485. Atik Ali Pasha Complex: It is located in Cemberlitas. Atik Ali Pasha had it built between 1486-1497. It determines the transition to Reverse T planned style. Beyazıd II Complex: It was built between 1501 -1506. Beyazid II had it built in the Beyazid Square. The complex gained importance from the standpoint of being a commercial and cultural center. Its architect is Yakub Sah bin Sultan Sah. Main dome of the mosque is supported by two half domes and on the sides each by four small domes thus a more developed cover system has been achieved. Sultan Selim Complex: It is built in Sultanselim on one of the hills dominating the Golden Horn. It is estimated to have been initiated by Architect Acem Ali in the period of Sultan Selim I and completed by Architect Sinan in the period of Kanuni in 1552. Piri Mehmed Pasha Complex: It is located in Silivri. Piri Mehmed Pasa had Architect Sinan built it between 1530-1531. Mihrimah Sultan Complex: It is situated in the quay square in Uskudar. Sultan Mihrimah had it built by architect Sinan in 1546-1548. Sehzade Complex: Caravanserai is on the road to Vefa High School. It was built between 1543-1548. It caused the Ottoman architecture to attain a new dimension. Kanuni Sultan Suleyman (the Magnificent) had it built by Architect Sinan. It is one of the three big monuments reflecting development stages of the artist. A central structure was attained by supporting the main dome by four half domes on sides and one small dome at each corner. Suleymaniye Complex: Suleymaniye complex which Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent had Architect Sinan built between 1550-1557 is the most important imperial building. The complex has been the symbol of the classical period due to abundance of buildings and skill in positioning the buildings and architectural order as well as its economic and cultural functions. Süleymaniye mosque, with Sinan's expression, symbolizes the foremanship period of his own and of the Ottoman architecture. Central dome in the main space of the building is supported by half domes in the north and the south and by adding triangular domed sections in varying dimensions in the east and the west, thus, a bright and spacious internal appearance in obtained. Haseki Complex: It is situated in Haseki. Sultan's favorite wife Hurrem Sultan had it built by architect Sinan in 1551. Hadım Ibrahim Pasha Complex: It is situated in Topkapi. It is a building constructed by Architect Sinan. Upon death of Kara Ahmet Pasha, it remained incomplete and was completed between 1555-1558 PALACES, MOSQUES AND BAZAARS OF ISTANBUL Mihrimah Sultan Complex: It is situated in Edirnekapi. It was built by Architect Sinan in the midst of l6th century. Kanuni Sultan Suleyman Complex: It is situated in Buyukçekmece and built by Architect Sinan in 1563. Zal Mahmud Pasha Complex: It is situated in Eyup. Zal Mahmud Pasha had Architect Sinan built it in the midst of the l6th century. Sokullu Complex: It is situated in Kadirga. It is one of the most beautiful works of Architect Sinan. It was built in 1571. Semsi Pasha Complex: It is situated at the right side of the Uskudar Quay. Semsi Pasha had it built by Architect Sinan in 1580. Kilic Ali Pasha Complex: It is situated in the Topkapi Square. Fleet Commander Kilic Ali Pasha had Architect Sinan built it in 1580. Old Valide Sultan Complex: It is situated in Topkapi, Uskudar. It was built by Architect Sinan in the name of Sultan Nurbani between 1577-1 583. Cerrahpasa Complex: It is situated in Cerrahpasa. Surgeon Mehmed Pasha had Architect Davud Aga built it between 1593-1594. New Valide Sultan Complex: It is situated in the Eminonu Square. It is the last classical style complex of the city. Sultan Safiye had Architect Davud Aga built it in 1597. Sultan Ahmed Complex: Ahmed I had commissioned Sedefkar Mehmet Aga for the construction of the complex. Head architect had difficulties in finding a suitable place, so pulled down the villas and mansions situated in front of Hagia Sophia and foundation of the complex was laid down in 1609. It was completed in 1617 after the death of Ahmed I. It is a master work which illustrates the characteristics of the Ottoman architecture. Despite the fact that it is in classical style, it occupies an important place in Turkish architecture with the novelties it has introduced. Here Sinan, has taken Şehzade mosque as an example. It is different with its main dome seated on four chamfered columns and with half domed spaces carried by sharp pointed arches on the sides. All of its walls are covered with İznik (Nicaea) tiles. Therefore, it is also called as "Blue Mosque". Cinili (Tiled) Complex: It is situated in Uskudar. Kosem Lahpeyker Sultan had it constructed by Architect Kasim Aga in 1640. Building as a whole is covered with tiles. Koprulu Complex: It is situated in Divanyolu street. Koprulu Mehmed Pasha had it built in 1661. Merzifonlu Kara Mustafa Pasha Complex: It is situated in Divanyolu street. It was initiated by Merzifonlu Pasha in 1681 and after his death was completed by his son Damat Ali Paşa in 1690. Amcazade Huseyin Pasha Complex: It is situated in Sarachanebasi, Fatih. Amcazade Huseyin Pasha had it built in 1700. New Valide Complex: Sultan Emetullah, mother of Ahmed III, had it built on the quay square in Uskudar between 1708-1710. Corlulu Ali Pasha Complex: Ali Pasha from Corlu had it built in Carsikapi between 1707- 1708. Damad Ibrahim Pasha Complex: General Damad Ibrahim from Nevsehir had it built in Sehzadebasi in 1720. Hekimoglu Ali Pasa Complex: It is situated in Davutpasa. It was built by Architect Haci Mustafa and Ömer Aga in 1 734. Nuruosmaniye Complex: It is located in Nuruosmaniye, Carsikapi. Sultan Mahmud I had it initiated in 1748 and it was completed by Architect Mustafa Aga and Foreman Simon in 1755 during the period of Osman III. Laleli Complex: It was initiated in Laleli in 1759 in the period of Mustafa III and completed in 1763. It was built by Architect Mehmed Tahir Aga in Baroque style. Abdulhamid I Complex: It is situated in Bahcekapi. Its construction was initiated between 1775-1776 in the period of Abdülhamid I and completed in 1789. Its architecture is Mehmed Tahir Aga. Kucuk Efendi Complex: Sheikh Muhammed Abdurresid had it built in Yedikule The Covered Bazaar - A Miniature Town The Kapali Carsi or Covered Bazaar or Grand Baazar is one of Istanbul's most intriguing sights. This labyrinth of vaulted roofed winding streets and domed buildings evolved over a period of 250 years. In the 15th century Sultan Mehmed II (1451-1481) built two stone bedestens, or exchanges as a source of income for Ayasofya Mosque (today Haghia Sophia Museum). Here merchants could store and sell their valuable merchandise. Known as the Cevahir and Sandal Bedestens respectively, these became the hub of Istanbul's commerce, and numerous stalls and shops were built around them. In time the lanes lined by these shops were roofed over for the convenience of shoppers, creating the bazaar as we know it today. This ancient shopping centre has suffered serious damage from earthquakes and fires over the three centuries since it attained its final form around 1700. Fires in 1701 and 1750 were followed by the earthquake of 1766, and further fires in 1791 and 1826. Then came the great earthquake of 1894, and most recently the fire of 1954, after which restoration work continued for five years. For those unfamiliar with the Kapaliçarsi and without a map it is easy to become lost or wander in circles. It covers an area of 30.7 hectares (75.8 acres), and consists of over 3000 shops and 61 streets, not to mention ten wells, four fountains, two mosques, and several cafés and restaurants. Around 25,000 people are permanently employed in the bazaar, and an indeterminate number of street vendors ply their wares in and around it. The heart of Turkey's gold market and unofficial foreign exchange market beat here. Over the centuries travellers to Istanbul have found the exotic atmosphere of this great bazaar, a miniature city within a city, irresistible. In the past the bazaar was lit only by high windows beneath the vaults, since the shopkeepers opened at first light and closed at dusk. In the centre of the complex is the high domed hall of the Cevahir Bedesten, also known as the Eski or iç Bedesten. Here the most valuable items and antiques were to be found in the past, and still are today, including copperware, amber prayer beads, inlaid weapons, icons, mother-of-pearl mirrors, water pipes, walking sticks, watches and clocks, candlesticks, old coins, and silver and gold jewellery set with coral and turquoise. The other 15th century hall, the Sandal Bedesten (also known as the Yeni or Küçük Bedesten) is roofed by 20 domes and lies at the northeast corner. The wayward, seemingly random plan of the other parts of the bazaar is part of its fascination. Surrounding the bazaar itself are numerous commercial buildings known as hans, each a warren of small workshops on several floors, often named after trades, such as Varakçi (Gold Leaf Maker) Han, today long superseded. Until the end of the 19th century a family could go on a shopping expedition to the Kapaliçarsi and purchase new outfits from top to toe, all the furnishings and household linen they required, have seal rings carved to order, and even equip the master of the household with a variety of weapons; all under this one roof. Today souvenirs and gifts seem to dominate, with rugs and jewellery a close second. The various tradesmen still tend to be grouped together along particular streets, whose names often recall items that have long since disappeared. There are the streets of Helmet Makers, Fez Makers, Napkin Makers, Quilt Makers, Calligraphers and Book Dealers, to name but a few. The book dealers have since moved out of the main bazaar into a small open-air bazaar known as Sahaflar Çarsisi next to Beyazit Gate. A leisurely afternoon spent exploring the bazaar, sitting in one of the cafés and watching the crowds pass by, and bargaining for purchases is one of the best ways to recapture the romantic atmosphere of old Istanbul. BURSA Bursa Great Mosque Bursa Great Mosque The Ulucami of Bursa was begun in 1396 during the reign of Bayazid I, and completed in 1399. It is a large rectangular building with the dimensions of 68 m. by 56 m. Twelve square piers divide the interior into twenty equal units, each of which is surmounted by a dome. The second dome from the main portal in the centml row is open on top. The unit below it has a pool in the centre. Its floor is finished with white marble slabs and is tower by two steps than the tloor of the prayer section. This part resembles an interior court. The domes of the Ulucami rest on pendentives and are enveloped on the exterior by octagonal drums. The centre row on the north-south axis has the highest domes; the hvo side rows diminish in height in two stages. The Ulucami of Bursa does not have a porch. Bursa Hudavendigar Mosque Murad I commissioned this mosque in 1365, which was completed in 1385. Hudavendigar Mosque is a typical Bursa type or inverted 'T' type of mosque with three iwans facing an inner court with a pool. This latter section is enclosed by a dome with oculus leaning on pendentives. The iwans and the six small rooms (hospices?) flanking them at the corners are all barrel vaulted. The main iwan which is raised from the ground and larger and higher than the other iwans, was used as a prayer hall. The inner court on the other hand was a kind of circulation area between the rooms and iwans. There is a five-bay porch on the entrance section that leads to a vestibule before the court. Hudavendigar Mosque This mosque is in fact a two-story building that comprises a madrasa on the upper level. It is like a Seljukid madrasa reversed. In Seljukid madrasas, a small masjid is usually placed in a square domed room adjacent to the entrance vestibule (compare with Gok Madrasa in Sivas). The masjid is here shifted to a more dominant place in such a way that the madrasa on the second floor is subordinated to the prayer hall. We can explain this displacement through ideological and social transformations occured in the early Ottoman world, which probably placed 'mosque' before institutions of learning. This application will later become a standard for building complexes in Istanbul, in which the monumental mosque dominates all surrounding structures. The facade of the gallery above the porch is unique with its composition of pointed double arches framed in mouldings. There is a cornice of blind-arches on top of the facade instead of the ordinary saw-tooths. This facade has an air of a building with Gothic flavor in Greek islands, whose features can also be discerned in the architecture of some Turkish principalities that flourished in the fourteenth century, in western Anatolia (Menteseogullari is one of them). In addition to this, columns and their capitals and marble doorjambs are of Byzantine materails reused in this facade. Hence a certain Western influence is apparent on the exterior of the Hudavendigar Mosque. EDİRNE Selimiye Mosque Located in the neighborhood of Faith. This was one of the least accessible areas of tge city with the Kyrk Merdiven cliffs on one side and a deep cistern on the other. The mosque was commissioned by Sultan Selim II and was built by Architect Sinan between the dates 1568-1574. This grand mosque stands at the center of a kulliya which comprises a medrese, a dar-ul hadis, a timekeeper's room and an arasta (row of shops). In this mosque Sinan employed an octagonal supporting system that is created through eight pillars incised in a square shell of walls. The four semi domes at the corners of the square behind the arches that spring from the pillars, are intermediary sections between the huge encompassing dome and the walls. These pillars are related to the back walls through supporting arches that provide an ambulatory space in front of the encircling walls. This octagonal disposition of the supporting system and absid-like mihrab section recall the Church of Sergius and Bacchus in Istanbul. But the galleries of this church behind the pillars that create a second floor and the entrance mass (narthexes) are eliminated in Sinan's structure. Hence, the interior of the Selimiye contains a more illuminated and ample space. On the other hand, the absid is retained, for a mihrab placed on a shallow southern wall would prevent the fluidity of the ambulatory space encircling the breathtaking central hall below the dome. The mosque is located in an outer courtyard which rings the complex. The area designated for late arriving worshippers is encircled by 18 columns and 22 domes. The 20 windows around the courtyard are covered with glazed tile panels, which are the finest examples of the period. The portico of the courtyard is decorated with floral designs. A reservoir for ablutions is found in the center of the courtyard. It is domed with eight marble pillars. There are two minarets with a single gallery each, and rooms on both sides of the mosque for the imam and müezzin. The shutters of the doors are fine examples of engraving and mother of pearl relief. The mosque is square in shape and extremely simple design. The pulpit is made of ornamented marble.The enclosed cemetery on the kiblah, or Mecca, side of the mosque contains the remains of Yavuz Sultan Selim, the heirs of Sultan Suleyman the Magnificent who died at a young age, his daughters are three tombs belonging to Sultan Abdulmecid.Of these, the window shutters, doors and wooden banister of the mausoleum belonging to Yavuz Sultan Selim are masterpieces of mother of pearl relief. Other than the mosque and mausoleum, the only structure which survived to the present is the primary school, located in the outer courtyard. The original decoration is recently restored, but gives an idea of Sinan's artful decorative style. Except the dome, the surfaces of the walls and arches are very plainly painted in light red in order to mark the contours of the basic architectural forms. Glazed tiles cover the mihrab section and the false arches above the windows of the substructure. They are very carefully applied to counterpoise the empty walls below and colored arches and dome above.The most conspicuous element inside the mosque is the respondent's platform (muezzin mahfili) at the center of the zulla (prayer hall). It is a loggia like wooden piece lifted by columns. At the north-western corner, a bulky truncated pillar is placed in order to mask the staircase leading to the podium. This small pillar brings a module to the prodigious scaling of the building. On the outside, there are four minarets ingeniously placed on the four corners of the main prayer hall. Hence the weight of the enclosing dome is balanced with the vertical extension of these slender towers. The conical caps of the turrets springing from the pillars also contributes to this equilibrium. As customary in Sinan's structures, the elements of the supporting and covering systems are exposed on the outside. The semi domes, pillars, ambulatory space and mihrab can all be perceived from outside. This masterpiece of the world architecture is a real synthesis of the building traditions that flourished in Anatolia. Most prominent of all are Late Roman (Early Byzantine) and Early Turkish elements. Sinan was a real mental giant who had the power of seeing as well as talent of interpreting this Anatolian inheritance, unique in the world. ARCHİTECTURE Outside of TURKEY -Ottoman Period in Jerusalem Hasan Bey Mosquefrom Jaffa When the Ottoman Turks defected the Mameluke forces in 1517, Palestine came under the rule of a new empire that was to dominate the entire Near East for the next 400 years. At the outset, particularly during the reign of Sultan Suleiman, known in Arabic as "the Law maker," but better known as Suleiman the Magnificent, Jerusalem flourished. Walls and gates, which had lain in ruins since the Ayyubid period, were rebuilt. The ancient aqueduct was reactivated and public drinking fountains were installed. After Suleiman's death, however, cultural and economic stagnation set in, Jerusalem again became a small, unimportant town. For the next 300 years its population barely increased, while trade and commerce were frozen; Jerusalem became a backwater. Although the renewal of Jerusalem's Jewish community is attributed to the activity of Nahmanides, who arrived in the city in 1267, the community's true consolidation occured in the 15th and 16th centuries, with the influx of Jews who had been expelled from Spain. The 19th century witnessed far-reaching changes, along with the gradual weakening of the Ottoman Empire. Political change in Jerusalem and indeed throughout the country was accelerated as part of a policy of Europeanization. European institutions in Jerusalem, particularly those of a religious character, enjoyed growing influence. Foreign consulates, merchants and settlers, grew in numbers and in power These foreigners brought in their wake many innovations: modern postal systems run by the various consulates; the use of the wheel for modes of transportation; stagecoach and carriage, the wheelbarrow and the cart; and the oil-lantern. These were among the first signs of modernization in the city. By mid-century the first paved road ran from Jaffa to Jerusalem; by 1892 the railroad had reached the city. The Wall and the Damascus Gate The Wall and the Damascus The wall that encloses the present-day Old City of Jerusalem was built in the sixteenth century by the Ottoman ruler Suleiman the Magnificent. Originally it had seven gates; an eighth, aptly named New Gate, was added in the late nineteenth century in the wall's northwest sector. The largest and most splendid of the portals is Damascus Gate. Located on the wall's northern side, it is adjacent to ruins attesting that this has been the site of the city's main entrance since ancient times. The gate's defenses include slits for firing at attackers, thick doors, and an opening from which boiling oil could be spilled on assailants below. Albania A Mosque in the Dunavat District The relationship between the Ottoman State and , Albania began after 1325. Albania became an Ottoman territory during the reign of Murad 11 (1421-1451). The country was divided into "timars" in accordance with the Ottoman economic system. The first known and published Ottoman document is a sanjak-i defter dated 835/1431 (H.Ynalcik, Survey of suret-i defter-i sanjak-i Arnavid, Ankara, 1954). Albania, occupying a much larger region then today, became an independent State in 1912. Halwati Tekke 1782 The number of buildings dating from Ottoman times and preserved until today are: Fortresses (6), Mosques (IS), Public Baths (4), Bridges (5), Tekke (1), Shops and Trade Centers (4), Aqueducts (1) Clock Towers (1) and Houses. According to the scrutinised wakf documents, the original number of these buildings were as follows. Fortresses (9), Mosques (482), Madrasas (28), Public Schools (1 I 1), Tekke and Zawiyas (144), Public Kitchens (9), Khans (123), Public Baths (18), Shrines (38), Bridges (18) and Fountains (13) (Ayverdi). Most of these buildings were constructed in towns which were at some time or other administrative centers of the sanjak: Kruje, V,lore Berat, Gjirokaster, Elbasan, Korçe, Shkoder, Tepelene and Tirane Algeria BeylerBeyi Palace from Algeria Algeria occupies almost the same territories today as it. did during the Ottoman period. The renowned Barbarossa Brothers, Arudj and Khayr al-din; volunteered in 922/1516for Ottoman sovereignty in order to protect Algeria from the Spanish attacks in the Mediterranean Sea. After Khayr al-din became the Admiral of the Ottoman Fleet, Algeria was governed first by beylerbeys then by pashas sent from the Capital until the l6th century. A sort of regency was then established first by aghas of military origin by the dominance of beys who ruled with the help of beys autonomously until the French conquest of Algeria in 1837.Examples of Ottoman architectural works can still be found in Algiers, Constantine, Tlemçen and Ouhran. including mainly mosques, mausoleums, palaces, fortresses, barracks, bridges, fountains and aqueducts.This architecture is characterised by clean white exterior walls and block-like volumes common to North Africa. However, the centralised plan of the mosques reflects the innovations of the Capital. Furthermore, certain arche forms, bricks covering roofs, compositions in plasterwork made of flowers stemming from vases and the use of tiles to decorate palaces indicate to what extent the modes and styles of Istanbul penetrated into the regional architecture of Algeria. -------OTTOMAN ARTS-------- CALLIGRAPHY Following the conquest of Istanbul, the Ottoman state rose to heights of achievement not only in the military and political arena, but in the spheres of culture and art. Seyh Hamdullah (833-926/1429-1520), who like his predecessor Yâkût (?-698/1298), came from the northern Turkish town of Amasya, began by following and perfecting the style of Yâkût. However, encouraged by his patron and student Sultan Bayezid II (lived: 1450-1512), he went on to subject the works of Yâkût to aesthetic scrutiny and incorporate his own artistic values, developing a new and original style around 1485. Known as the "Seyh Manner", this brought the Yâkût period of Ottoman Turkish calligraphy to a close. Ahmed Karahisâri (?-963/1556) revived the Yâkût style with unsurpassed brilliance during the age of Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, but upon his death the style fell into oblivion again. The Karahisâri school was inarguably superior in writing celî sülüs to the Seyh Hamdullah manner, although the latter prevailed. Of the six scripts inherited from Yâkût, sülüs and nesih, which were especially compatible with Turkish taste, spread rapidly during the Seyh Hamdullah era, and nesih became the only script used to copy the Koran. Due to the paucity of rounded characters and the broad shape of muhakkak and reyhânî, these hands were gradually abandoned, until eventually they were used solely as exercises by calligraphers to improve their dexterity. As a result they occur in later years only in murakkaa (writing albums) in which calligraphers practised copying inscriptions. The only exception is the tradition of writing the Besmele (the formula bismillahirrahmanirrahim meaning "in the name of God, the Compassionate, the Merciful), which has continued to be written in muhakkak to the present day. Rika' evolved into a more appealing form which under the name hatt-i icâze was used notably by calligraphers to write their signatures and the diplomas given to calligraphy students. Tevkî', however, fell largely into disuse .Seyh Hamdullah's successors devoted their efforts to imitating their master, and took this to such an extreme that the greatest words of praise a celebrated calligrapher could expect was, "He writes like the Seyh", or to be called, "A second Seyh Hamdullah". This situation continued for over 150 years. At last, in the second half of the 17th century, the light of a new master illuminated the horizon of art in Istanbul. This was Hâfiz Osman (1052-1110/1642-1698), who subjected the style of Seyh Hamdullah, whose writing was based on selected aspects of Yâkût's work, to a process of elimination, and proceeded to evolve an original manner of his own, characterised by relatively greater purity. The "Seyh style" now made way for that of Hâfiz Osman. While the new era which he initiated in calligraphy was still in full swing a century on, Ismail Zühdi (?-1220/1806) and his brother Mustafa Râkim (1171-1241/1757-1826) developed their own styles inspired by the finest of Hâfiz Osman's work. Although sülüs had been used to produce masterful work, its thicker-lined form celî sülüs had failed to achieve comparable aesthetic quality. Indeed, the celî form was often execrable, and even the celî of Hâfiz Osman was not worthy of an artist of such calibre. However, at that time, no one had been able to do better. It was with Mustafa Râkim that, as in the case of sülüs and nesih, celî sülüs achieved a superlative excellence in terms both of the characters and composition that had never before been matched in any calligraphic style. He achieved this by applying the manner of Hâfiz Osman in sülüs to celî. Mustafa Râkim also improved the imperial tugras, which he carried to ultimate perfection. That is why the celî sülüs script and the tugra can usefully be classified into the "pre-Râkim" and "post-Râkim" periods. Another master of celî and successor of Râkim was Sâmi Efendi (1253-1330/1838-1912), who applied the sülüs characters of Ismail Zühdi to celî, contributing a new manner to Râkim's school. The style of his numerals and the vowel signs and diacritical marks used in calligraphic istif or compositions is outstanding. Calligraphers such as his contemporary Haci Ârif Bey of Çarsanba (?-1310/1892), Nazif Bey (1262-1331/1846-1945), Ismail Hakki Altunbezer (1289-1355/1873-1946), Mâcid Ayral (1308-1318/1891-1961), Halim Özyazici (1315-1384/1898-1964) and Hâmid Aytaç (1309-1402/1891-1982) continued to follow, or sought to follow, this style of celî. Mahmud Celâleddin (?-1245/1829), who was a contemporary of Râkim, adopted the manner of Hâfiz Osman in his sülüs and nesih, and by adapting it according to his own taste achieved a confident, fluid style of writing. However, when writing celî, his style becomes stiff and awkward. Although the great calligrapher and musician Kadiasker Mustafa Izzet Efendi (1216-1293/180 1-1876), his pupil Sefik Bey (1235-1297/1819-1818), Abdullah Zühdi Efendi (?-1296/1879), Ali Efendi (?-1320/1902) and Muhsinzâde Abdullah Bey (1248-1317/1832-1899) all adopted a style which combined the characteristics of Hâfiz Osman, Celâleddin and Râkim, it was their contemporary Sevki Efendi (1245-1304/1829-1887), inspired by Hâfiz Osman and Râkim, who developed sülüs and nesih to a height of perfection never attained previously and never surpassed since. His pupil Bakkal Ârif (1246-1327/1830-1909), Fehmi (1276-1333/1860-1915), and Kâmil Akdik (1278-1360/1861-1941) who trained under Sâmi Efendi are the most eminent representatives of this style. Seyh Azîzü'r-Rifâi (1288-1353/1871-1934) who studied calligraphy under Ârif Efendi made a major contribution to the spread of the "Sevki Efendi manner" after he was invited to Egypt, from where the style spread through the Islamic world. Hasan Riza (1265-1338/1849-1920), a member of the "Kadiasker school" and Kayiszâde Hâfiz Osman (?-1311/1894) were the last outstanding calligraphers to write the Koran in nesih script. The dîvânî and celî dîvânî scripts reached their culmination at the end of the 19th century. Now let us see what happened to the ta'lîk script under the Ottomans. This script which had been used in Turkey since the second half of the fifteenth century rose to prominence after the renowned master of ta'lîk Imâdü'l-Hasenî (?-1024/1615) had demonstrated its potential. Turkish calligraphers took to this style of ta'lîk with such enthusiasm that it became customary to refer to calligraphers who excelled in it as Imâd-i Rûm ("the Imâd of Anatolia"). In the 18th century, Mehmed Es'ad Efendi (?-1213/1798), a remarkable calligrapher who was known by the cognomen of Yesârî ("left-handed") because the right side of his body was paralysed obliging him to write with his left hand, selected Imâd's loveliest characters as the basis of his own manner. In this way a Turkish school of ta'lîk was born. His son Yesârizâde Mustafa Izzet Efendi (?-1265/1849) set this manner on a foundation of detailed rules, and developed a style of celî ta'lîk in Istanbul which had no match even in Persia. Sâmi Efendi, who was a master of ta'lîk and celî ta'lîk, as well as celî sülüs, passed on this Turkish style in its superlative form to his pupils Hulûsi Yazgan (1286-1358/1869-1940) and Necmeddin Okyay (1300-1396/1883-1976). As can be seen, a continual process of selection and refinement went on in the stylistic evolution of Turkish calligraphy, but without distortion of the essential forms. While western influence brought about a degradation in Turkish architecture, music, painting and decoration, no similar decline took place in calligraphy. This can be attributed to three factors: 1. The absence of a comparable art in Europe to exert an influence, 2. The continuation of the master-apprentice system whereby techniques and aesthetic concepts were transmitted from generation to generation, 3. The capacity of this art for self-renewal. There is a widespread adage in Muslim countries to the effect that, "The Koran descended in the Hejaz, was read in Egypt, and written in Istanbul." There is no denying that it was in Istanbul that the Koranic scriptures appeared as works of art on paper. In the same way, the hadîs or oral traditions of the Prophet took their finest written form here, and the list could be extended. Divans and fermân, and carved inscriptions on marble fountains and tombstones were all inscribed with a beauty worthy of Istanbul's reputation as "beldetün tayyibetün" ("the most beautiful city") by calligraphers too numerous to cite by name here. After this brief account, I will mention two scripts not regarded as calligraphic hands in the past: RIK'A Despite the close resemblance between their names, rik'a bears no resemblance of form to rika', which is the sixth of the aklâm-i sitte scripts. The rik'a script was that in daily use by every literate Ottoman Turk, and was written with a reed pen whose nib was a maximum of 1 mm in width. Until the 19th century, the style of rik'a depended entirely on the whim of each writer, but this situation ended with the advent of Bâbiâlî rik'asi, which was originally devised by Mümtaz Efendi (1225-1287/1810-1872) and used by government offices. The speed of writing this script was increased by means of simplifying the characters. Later in the century, Mehmed Izzet Efendi (1257-1302/1841-1903) developed another form of rik'a based on strict rules. Known as Izzet Efendi rik'asi, this script was subsequently adopted widely in the Arab world. SIYÂKAT The script known as siyâkat was reserved for Treasury documents and title deeds in the Ottoman Empire. It was so extremely difficult to read and write that it could more accurately perhaps be termed a cipher, and was intended as a prevention measure against forgery. It was never employed with artistic intent. EBRU The Art of Marbling It is not possible to tell exactly when people started painting papers using the techniques of ebru which is one of the most important of paper decorating arts. Although it is possible to find ebru papers in the bindings of centuries old books, these cannot be used to date ebru papers as these books may be restored years after they have been written and ebru papers on their bindings may have been used during a later repair. Only ebru papers with a written date on them can be used as evidence for the age of that ebru paper. Besides the oldest ebru papers dated in this manner are the papers used in Arifi's "Guy-i Cevgan" in the Museum of Topkapi Palace collection which is dated to 1539, two papers in the Library of Istanbul University which were used for two calligraphies of Mir Ali of Herat which are dated to 1539, a paper used for Maliki Deylemi's calligraphies from Ugur Derman's Collection which is dated to 1554 and three papers used in one of the copies of Fuzuli's book, "Hadikat-us sueda" (Garden of Happiness) which are dated to 1595 can be used as evidence for the history of Turkish ebru. The artists who made the first three ebrus are unknown whereas in the opening page of Fuzuli's book, after the name of the book, "Hadikat-us sueda" in red ink, "Ma Sebek Mehmet Ebrisi" (with ebru of Sebek Mehmet) is written.Three ebru papers with pale colours are used inside the book and on the last page the date is given as "1004" (1595 ).From the sentence on the first page, we learn that the name of the marbler who has been mentioned as "Sebek" in the booklet "Tertib-i Risale-i Ebri" is Mehmet and the papers used in this book are made by this marbler. The last page indicates the date that the book has been written. We don't have the chance of identifying all of our marblers by name since ebru papers haven't been signed during our history of ebru. The following are the marblers who made important contribution to our ebru tradition as mentioned previously. No information other than the given above is available for Sebek Mehmet Efendi. His death must be before the publication of "Tertib-i Risale-i Ebri", 1608 since it is said "rahimehullah" (May God bless his soul) for him in this booklet. It is understood from the words "Nusha-i Sebek" (booklet of Sebek) in the "Tertib-i Risale-i Ebri" that he has an unknown booklet. HATIP MEHMET EFENDI He is from Istanbul. He is known as "hatip" (preacher) because he was the preacher of Ayasofya Mosque. The date of his birth is unknown. Because he is mentioned as "pir-i mubarek" (holly old master) in the "Tuhfe-i Hattatin", he must have been quite old when he died in April 1773. He has learnt "tuluth-nesh" calligraphy from Zuhdi Ismail Aga. Because he is the inventor of ebru figures created by dropping concentric dyes and reshaping them with a needle, ebru papers containing such figures are called "hatip ebrusu". His ebru papers which were identified by their distinctive colours and hatip patterns have been extremely popular and avidly collected during his lifetime. He died in the fire which destroyed his home in Hocapasa district of Istanbul. SEYH SADIK EFENDI There is not much information about the life of Sheikh Sadik Efendi who was born in the city of Vabakne in Bukhara. He was the sheikh of the Ozbekler Tekkesi (Uzbekh Dervish Convent) in Sultantepesi, Uskudar. We know that he learnt the art of ebru when he was in Bukhara and he taught it to his two sons Edhem and Salih. It is read from his tombstone in the Dergah that he died on the 11th of July 1846. HEZARFEN EDHEM EFENDI Ibrahim Edhem Efendi who was the Sheikh of Uskudar Ozbekler Tekkesi is considered as the most distinguished marbler of the last century. He was the grandfather of Turkey's ex-ambassador to Washington, Munir Ertegun (1882-1944). He was born in the Ozbekler Tekkesi in 1829. He has been educated by his father Sadik Efendi, his uncle and the scholars from Bukhara visiting the Tekke. He was proficient in Turkish, Arabic, Persian and Cagatai. He learnt ta'lik script from Carsambalı Arif Bey at a quite an old age. He was a carpenter, metal caster, weaver, printer, architect, scientist and a mathematician. He was appointed as the first principal to Sultanahmet School of Crafts in 1869 and it was here that the first lead pipes were cast in Turkey. Producing ebru papers was one of his many talents which made him famous as Hezarfen (owner of a thousand crafts). Besides Aziz Efendi and Sami Efendi, the most distinguished of his students is Necmeddin Okyay.He died on the 8th of January 1904 and buried in the cemetery of the Tekke. NECMEDDIN OKYAY He was born on the 29th of January 1885 in Uskudar. He was the master marbler of the twentieth century. Necmeddin Okyay was educated in theology but he is best known as a calligrapher and marbler. Besides calligraphy and marbling, he was a master of ink-making, traditional bookbinding, rose-growing, archery etc. He learnt ebru from Hezarfen Edhem Efendi. He taught calligraphy at Medresetu'l Hattatin (School of Calligraphy) and traditional bookbinding and ebru at the Academy of Fine Arts. He taught ebru to his sons Sami (1910-12 June 1933) and Sacid (1915-19 April 1999) Okyay and to his nephew Mustafa Duzgunman (1920-12 September 1990) .Before Necmeddin Okyay, we had very primitive flower ebrus. He started a new style in our ebru history by creating flower designs which are admired by the marblers of the world. He is also the inventor of calligraphy with marbling. At the beginning he used to prepare stencils of calligraphies, glue them on the paper to be marbled using gum Arabic which is a very weak adeshive and remove the stencil after the paper has been marbled. Later he noticed that the parts of the paper which has gum Arabic resist the dyes and he started to write with gum Arabic instead of ink. The most famous of calligraphies produced by Necmeddin Okyay as described is the "Lafza-i Celal" ( name of God ). SAMI OKYAY He was the second son of Necmeddin Okyay. He was born in Uskudar in 1910. He learnt ebru from his father and made unbelievably beautiful and technically difficult ebrus during his very short life. Besides ebru, he was a very talented illumination, engraving, lacquer and traditional bookbinding artist. SACID OKYAY He was the third and youngest son of Necmeddin Okyay. He was born in Uskudar in 1915. He taught traditional bookbinding and ebru at the Academy of Fine Arts from 1936 to 1973 until he retired.He died on the 19th of April 1999 and buried at the Karacaahmet Cemetery, next to his father. EMBROIDERY These beautiful textiles were strongly redolent of an exotic way of life -one bathed in sunshine and heady perfumes, a way of life that was slow and gracious and, above all, permeated with the fondly imagined sensuality of the harem. They must have seemed a far cry from the industrial mass- production that was celebrated in the Great Exhibition of 1851. Products from the Ottoman Empire were included in those displays and a towel bought from the Exhibition ; a second towel may also have been displayed at the Great Exhibition because the family of its embroiderer is known to have contributed to the Ottoman stands. The collection of Ottoman embroidery in the Victoria & Albert Museum numbers over 680 pieces ranging in date from the middle ofthe sixteenth century to about 1900. The pieces illustrated in this book are worked in the six most characteristic Ottoman techniques: surface darning, laid and couched by a couched line, double running, double darning, muşabak and mürver. Two pieces have been included from a private collection because they illustrate specifıc variations which the Museum's collection cannot. From the sixteenth century up to the 1720s , the pieces which have survİved are whole, or fragments of, covers and hangİngs decorated with large-scale, bold desİgns in a limited palette of red, blue, green and yellow with some white and black. There are three main pattern types. 1. The oldest patterns are formed by the intersecting lines of a lattice, which enclose spaces fılled with floral motifs. In some examples the space and the lattice are gİven equal emphasis, while in others either the lattice or the space is dominant. 2. In the seventeenth century the lines of the lattice were broken apart and separated into wavy parallel stems running along the length of the fabric. Sometimes equal weight is given to the stems and to the flowers and leaves but often the stems become secondary , being overwhelmed by the size or sheer abundance of blossoms. In some later examples the stems have disappeared but the diagonally placed flowers, in bands facing alternately left and right, remain. 3. At the same time as textile designers worked with separating the lattice into parallel stems as the basis for some designs, they focused on the complete absence of the lattice for others. As strong medallion-shaped compartments were often combined with thin or delicate lattices , İt was a simple step to abandon the lattice and work only with medallions. Those Ottoman embroideries that have survived from before the eighteenth century retlect what was popular in the magnificent imperial court. They were frequently produced as less expensive versions of woven silk and velvet fabrics; until the mechanization of weaving in Europe in the early nİneteenth century, embroidery was a cheaper alternative to weaving. It is tempting to suggest that Ottoman embroidery was not regarded as an art form until the 1720s, when it stopped copying woven designs and became truly creative. Wİth an interest in European art came a quiet revolution in embroidery: new , realistic tloral motifs were introduced and many of them were depicted in great detail. They were allowed to sway naturally and sweep across the fabric and were embroidered in a new, softer and brighter palette enhanced with metal thread.For the first time dress accessories, and furnishings other than covers and hangings,have survived.At the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, embroidery designs began to develop into rigid and stylized borders for towels and napkins: the colours were stronger and more stable and greater quantities of metal were used. The designs were consistently inventive and the technical skill is astonishing; wheter it is in crowded borders or within isolated motifs, it is pure Turkish delight. CERAMICS Second half of the 16th century which is named as the classical age of Turkish art during Ottoman rule, was the most magnificent period for ceramics as well as the other handcrafts. The white paste products in ceramics which had started with the Blue-and-Whites had reached the summit of their developmental phases during 1549. The three lugged lamp, which originally belonged to the Omar Mosque in Jerusalem and which is now displayed in the British Museum, bears the production date and place on the inscription panel on its pedestal. This inscription reads Iznik -1549. The most important final phase of the Turkish ceramic art also started with a three lugged lamp made for the Süleymaniye Mosque, Istanbul which was completed in 1557. This example is on display in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London. One of the richest collections of the world related to that period is kept in the Tiled Kiosk, Istanbul which has been converted into the Museum of Turkish Building Tiles and Ceramics. This third stage of our building tile and ceramic art continued until 1608. Iznik workshops applied underglaze technic during this period of extraordinary success which started with the Blue-and-Whites. This period attained a unique level in worldwide tile and ceramic art with its design and colour scale. The geometrical design of the Seljuk inheritance was completely dispensed with in the embellishments whereas the palmettes and leaves were still used. The plant motifs of the classical age were drawn on the white undercoats. A superficial abstraction is dominant in the naturalistic plant designs. The main examples of Nature motifs were carnations, tulips, plum blossoms and branches in full blossom, pomegranates, peonies, broken leaves, rosettes, roses, bunch of grapes, acanthus leaves, vases and birds with black, thin countermines. The colour scale on the artist's palette reached to seven different values with their various tones. The white, tile paste prepared with a great amount of silica is given form on the pottery lathe, then it is dried in the sun and baked in the oven at a degree of 800-1000+C. When it cools, a white, thin kaolin undercoat is applied. The decorations are drawn and coloured on this undercoat and then it is reovened to fix the colours. It is then glazed with thin, transparent lead-glass and the final baking takes place. The cobalt or sead blues, turquoises, manganese violets, chrome greens, slightly raised coral and tomato reds and their various tones on white ground which are painted underglaze, give a colour drunkenness to the admirers as well as the artist himself. There are no cracks on the glaze. Motion and dynamism are in full balance and symmetry both in the designs and the colours. Each motif is a whole in itself whereas it is also an unseparable part of the eternal whole. Celi and Nesih styles of calligraphy are often seen in these embellishments. The decorated surfaces of the Ottoman polychrome pottery made by underglaze technic are embellished with white and pale blue over either indigo or light brown. They are made with raised and coloured undercoat and black underglaze colouring is also seen. Thus, they have a special characteristic with these qualities. The coloured undercoat decoration technic under transparent, colourless glaze, has been successfully applied in building-tiles as well as pottery, as can be witnessed by an example displayed in the Tiled Kiosk Museum, Istanbul. This technic is another development of that period. According to documents and books giving information about that period, forty five of the sixhundred artists working for the court were painters and designers. The composition of decorations to be applied on the inner or outer surfaces of artistic architectural works were prepared by those artists. The preliminairy sketches were presented to the court by means of the head architect and the necessary approval was obtained. Imperial edicts and orders take place among the archives documents related to the Iznik tile workshops. In these documents dated 1575, 1578, 1588, not only the list of ordered products, but also the inventory of the tiles and pottery stocked in the depots are mentioned. Furthermore the names of the production supervisors and the artists are also written. The workshops that gave priority to the orders of the court and its close circles were more than 300 during that period. Those workshops met from time to time the demands for export and the foreign orders. The export port was Lindos in Rhodes. Some European researchers have been misled by the Rhodes stamps on the ceramics and they have mentioned these as Rhodes tiles and pottery in their publications. Some of these ceramics also bear the coats of arms of foreign families. It is understood from the samples that in addition to the Iznik production center, the workshops in Kütahya and Haliç, Istanbul successfully produced ceramics. The recession in Iznik and the decadence of the workshops started in the beginning of the 17th century. The colours lost their vividness. The coral and tomato blues darkened. Quality deficits and cracks on the glazes began. The attractiveness was lost. The net lines of the contours were dispersed. The political regression was felt most at the Iznik tile workshops among all the handcrafts. The decadence was completed when financial support ceased and the producer families were scattered away. The later attempts to revive did not give successful results. The level of the second half of the 16th century was never attained. Since the production technic details were kept secret, and the technical development knowledge was not mentioned in written documents, an important gap of information was formed for the following generations. The attempts for revival required thoroughly new efforts and these efforts could not be a substitution for the traditional training passing from one generation to the next. The examples to be found in the museums and in private collection/gain value and they are considered rare works of art in the world antique markets. MINIATURES The Oldest Turkish Illustrated Documents Turks had the tradition to illustrate manuscripts during the cultural periods before Islamic belief. Paper that could be rolled started to be made in China with plant fibers in 105 B.C. No written or illustrated document has yet been found from the time of the Chinese Han dynasty, of Huns and Göktïrks.Nevertheless, the large quantities of stone engravings, textiles,ceramics, works of art made of metal, wood, leather which have survived to the present day, prove that the above mentioned cultural circles were quite developed in other fields of art. The oldest examples of Turkish pictures for walls are from the 6th, 7th and 8th centuries. The withering influence of natural conditions have prevented the survival of these first examples. The oldest illustrated documents on paper among Turkish tribes, are from the period succeeding Akhuns. These documents dating from 717-719 are in Turkish, Chinese and Arabic and they belong to a Turkish emir who battled with Moslem armies in Pencikent near Samarkand. This prince was taken prisoner, and his palace was ruined 722. The wall drawing are the most important part of Turkish cultural treasures. Von le Coq who has researched Central Asian Turkish culture writes this: "Turks have scattered all of their written cultural products in the dusty roads of steppes and deserts while migrating to the west." Prophet Mohammed tranquilizes the dragon on the way of the caravan, "Siyer-I Nebi" end of the 16th century. Samarkand was renowned during 6th-8th centuries by its drawing workshops where illustrations on wood, plaster and leather were made. These works influenced greatly the Anatolian Seljuk period. The most important development of the 9th century Uygur Turks in the art of painting, was accomplished by the painters and their school in the town of Kizilkent. Their sense of light in pictures and their search for the influence and impression of shadow and light, served largely for the formation of Seljuk miniature school and canalized it. The Tun-Huang monastery and library of Uygur Turks has a special importance. Among thousands of books in the library there are the oldest Turkish gilded and miniature manuscripts. The oldest wooden print and illustrated book in the world belongs to Uygurs and is in the above library. The date of the book is 868. Another important aspect of this find is that some manuscripts have been written in letters same with the ones on the Göktïrk Orhun epitaphs. The oldest miniatures found in Moslem circles are from the 9th, 10th, 11th centuries and they have been found in Egypt. Islamic sources of later periods also confirm this fact. Seljuk Turks established the first school of miniatures in Baghdad within their vast empire covering Turkestan, Iran, Mesopotamia and Anatolia in the 12th century. This school has continued until the end of the 14th century, but the most important works and examples are from the 13th century. "The Seven Sleepers", Important characters in history 1583 Islamic culture was influenced also by antique heritage in the field of miniatures. The books of the antique age were read and translated. These manuscripts were illustrated. Moslems used these original illustrations in the translations; but although the text were not changed in the later translations, the miniatures were made differently. There are even differences of style in these early works. The miniatures of the antique age are disorganised and most of them have descriptive qualities. In Seljuk miniatures, on the contrary, the subject was composedly depicted. The subjects were taken from the antique age, whereas the style was influenced by oriental, Uygur painting. The main characteristics of the Seljuk-Baghdad school were vigour, briskness, power of expression, caricature quality, over ornamentation, lack of scenery and accentuation of figures. Before starting to study the Ottoman miniature, I shall refer to two more schools of miniature related to Turks. This attitude has a main reason, and that is the inevitable necessity to know the contradictory schools in order to comprehend to one under study. The Chinese influence in the 14th century Mongolian miniatures, is felt in the landscapes made with Chinese ink. The dominant characteristics of those pictures were Chinese style clouds, the curved lines and flower outlines. The colours were dull. There were no figures in the early works. Scenery and figures have been united in the Mongolian miniatures after the Chinese influence ended. Realism, portrait Characteristics, light and shadow, perspective were dominant in large figures. The figures got smaller towards the end of the 15th century, during Tamerlane reign. The surfaces were covered with superficial and decorative all over designs. The dominant subjects were romantic stories. The animals in "Kelile and Dimne" fables were pictured within sceneries. Folk stories such as "Hïsrev and Shirin", "Leyla and Mecnun" have been depicted in the poetic atmosphere of poet Sadi. The abstract expression gave the same value to each figure as in the carpet motifs. Ottoman Miniatures The conquest of Istanbul was the first step into a new phase of the Ottoman cultural life. The characteristics of the period in the field of paintings and miniatures may be summed up as the meeting of the eastern and western painting schools, as the widespread interaction and communication and as the widespread availability of display. While the Hïsrev and Shirin, Sheraz school in the beginning of the 15th century, Iran Italian painters called by Mehmet the Conqueror continued their activities, Turkish artists on the other hand, carried on the domestic traditions. We can see this dual influence in the works of Sinan Bey from Bursa, who was the pupil of Hïsamzade Sunullah and Master Paoli. Meanwhile, upon closure of the Heart academy for painting in the beginning of the 16th century, its famous instructor Behzat was met with a deserved esteem in Tabriz in 1512. His pupils began to produce works in his style. Their works reached the gates of Istanbul. Sultan Selim Iran and Aleppo to Istanbul after the seizure of Tabriz and he ordered his men to create favourable conditions for those artists' work. Soon after Shah Kulu from Tabriz was leading these artists in an academy which was called by the Turks "Nakkashanei-i Irani" (The Persian Academy of Painting). "Nakkashane-i Rum" (The Ottoman Academy of Painting) was established upon the reaction of the Ottoman painters. It goes without question that the period beginning with Mehmet the Conqueror and ending with Sultan Selim I, was one of the most interesting and important phases in Turkish painting and miniatures. Various styles and ways of expression were searched, the influences were are guide and syntheses were attained. Now we shall take a look at the Turkish Academy during Sïleyman the Magnificent reign. Turkish miniature lived its golden age during that period, with its own characteristics and authentic qualities. The most renowned artists of the period were Kinci Mahmut, Kara Memi from Galata, Naksi (his real name Ahmet) from Ahirkapi, Mustafa Dede (called the Shah of Painters), Ibrahim ?elebi, Hasan Kefeli, Matrak_i Nasuh, Nigari (who portrayed Sultan Selim II and whose real name was Haydar. He was a sailor).Miniature was again on full force during Murat III's reign. The famous miniature painters of the age were master Osman, Ali ?elebi, Molla Kasim, Hasan Pasa and Lïtfï Abdullah. We should also mention the Persian, Albanian Bogdanian and Hungarian artists who largely contributed to the art of miniature in the cosmopolitan Ottoman society. According to the registers of the 16th century, the number of miniaturists in Sïleyman the Magnificent's court only were 29 instructor-masters and 12 apprentice-pupils. These numbers increased highly towards the end of the century. Few of the miniatures are dated. The miniaturist signed his work only if he alone has painted the portrait or the scene. The works were usually anonymous. The head painter used to draw the main composition with thin brushes and then his assistants and pupils painted in part by part. It is difficult to distinguish individual styles. The head painter, the author and writer of the story were also depicted in some of the miniatures. The most refined lines forming the basis of the picture were the lines bordering spaces, the lines on coloured surfaces and the lines of facial expression. The design approach was usually symmetrical. The terms of the age were: "Nakis-miniature; nakkaspainter, miniaturist; tasvir-depiction; mïsavvir-depicter; nakkashane/nigarhane-workshop; kalemi siyah-pencil; sebil yazmak-to portray; tahr-composition; tarrah-designer of the composition; endam-symmetry, balance; nakkasan group of miniaturists. The beauty of the Turkish miniatures spring from the contours and the sense of colour. The paper straightened by a heavy press was covered by red lead. The finish consisted of egg-white, starch, lead carbonate, gum tragacanth, salt of ammonia. The finished paper had a luminous appearance and it was creamy in colour. After the text and tables were completed, the paper was handed to the miniaturists to be painted. The miniatures were divided as 1)Illustration of books, compositions (depiction of certain subjects and events) and 2)portraits. The subjects of the miniatures were as follows: Shahname and Shehinshahname-The public and private lives of rulers, their portraits and historical events; Shemaili Ali Osman-portraits of rulers; Surname-pictures depicting weddings and especially circumcision festivities; religious subjects (Siyer-i Nebi); Shecaatname-wars commanded by pashas; Iskendername-in ancient Moslem belief Alexander the Great is considered a prophet; Humayunname-epics, heroic deeds and animal fables; literary works and folk stories such as Leyla and Mecnun; anthologies; the world of botanies and animals, scientific books on alchemy, cosmography and medicine; technical books; love letters; horoscopes translations.The miniatures in the translations were sometimes directly copied from the original and sometimes they were authentically made. In such cases, ones should know the different styles of the other Moslem miniatures such as Iran and India. Kaaba depictions, sports and especially horse-riding scenes took place in the Turkish miniatures. Portrait of Murat III. "Important Characters in History, 1583" The clear and simple expression attained a magnificent style by plain drawing and colours. There was neither lyricism nor idealism, but only realism based on close observation. There were humorous expressions of daily life. This expressionist style revealed itself in a very few lines in the moving bodies. Refined details were rare. The purpose was to reflect and attain the best within simplicity. The combat order were shown on war miniatures. It is understood that the miniaturists joined those campaigns. The artists did not consider perspective and the third dimension. They portrayed people in straight profiles or from the front instead of the three fourth profile seen in Persian miniatures. The relation between nature, objects and figures was not taken into consideration. The relation between nature, objects and figures was not taken into consideration. The important point was the main theme. The secondary themes and scenes were complementary to the composition. The borrowed look of the figures indicate that they were the ordinary individuals of protocol in every period. Pride, faithfulness and anxiety signified the order of the state with a humorous approach. The composition and the contours were worked attentively. The order of places was very important. Realistic scenery and topographic views were rare. Artists like Matrak_i Nasuh who depicted the Iraqian campaign of Sïleyman the Magnificent with details of the resting places and the Mediterranean ports, were very few. The colours were obtained by powdered dyes mixed with egg-white. The colours were strikingly brilliant. Contrasting colours were used side by side with warm colours with an avant-garde approach in colour selection. In nature depictions spots of colour were used. The colour nuances of the same shade were masterly applied. The most used colours were bright red, scarlet, green and different shades of blue. The domes were painted pale blue. The way black, white, yellow and gild were used liberally had a special quality. Gild was used in architectural details, in the background and the ground of calligraphic works. The sky and clouds were never depicted in their natural colours. Turkish art of miniature, as all the other handcrafts, followed the historical line of the state and had its golden age during the 16th century. Turkish-Islamic Art; The Miniatures of the Zubdat-al-Tawarikh. THE ART OF JEWELRY IN THE OTTOMAN COURT The court records dating from 1526 indicate that there were 90 jewelry artizans in the service of the Sultan. The art of Ottoman jewelry making reached its peak in the 16th century, with gold and precious stones applied not only to wearable jewelry but also to articles of everyday objects such as bookcovers, utencils, weapons etc. using a variety of materials such as leather, ivory, glass, bone, mother-of-pearl, horn, wood and metals such as zinc. Ottoman jewelry had to be ornate and extremely colourful. Jewellers used a variety of metals in order to fashion a piece of jewelry, which is the main difference from European jewelry where the same metal is repeated. Another feature of Ottoman jewelry is that instead of strict symmetry, the nature of the stone and metal are given prominence. For instance, the natural characteristics of a ruby and emerald reflect the Ottoman feature of jewelry. Jewelry was produced in the palace or in workshops elsewhere. Ottoman jewelry was designed using natural motifs which reflected the prevailing tastes. As the types of stones and the mines increased during the expansion of the Empire, jewelry production increased also. From the 18th century onwards, Western trends led to an exaggerated increase in the size of jewelry. Aigrettes were used both by the Sultan and notable women of the Harem. It was the symbol of power because of its shape and appearance. It is known that Sultans gave the valuable aigrettes as presents or as awards to certain individuals. Jewelled aigrettes also enhanced the heads of horses during equestrian ceremonies. They attracted attention with their simple floral or drop designs and reflected the brightness of the precious gems on them. In later periods, the aigrettes were huge. In portraits the sultans usually wore one aigrette but sometimes they wore three. Women wore more than one aigrette but sometimes they put one on their forehead and another on the back of their head. Pins were important pieces of jewelry in women's head ornaments. These ornaments were pinned to crests or put directly on the hair or sometimes they were put on the brooches of dresses. The "Titrek" or "Zenberekli" are typical Ottoman pins which dangle with each move of the body. Motifs from nature such as the tulip, rose, violet, floral bouquet, bird, butterfly and bee are mostly used in this type of jewelry. Jewelry with flower motifs was used on the hair. Earrings have been widely used for centuries. They have many shapes from small pearl drops to long dangling ones. They have an important place in Turkish jewelry because they emphasized the beauty of the hairstyle and dress of Ottoman women. Earrings are classified according to how they dangle: the double dangling ones "pay-i çift" consist of three drops called the "üç ayakli", (three feet). The simple gold bangles are not only considered to be jewelry but are bought as an investment to be converted into cash by their owners whenever needed. The women of the Ottoman Palace bought these bracelets from time to time. There are many other styles of bracelets which women favoured such as the twisted type. Signet rings encrusted with precious gems like rubies, emeralds and semi-precious germs like carnelian, amythest and jade were favoured by Ottoman women. They wore them on one or more fingers. Solitares and rose shaped diamond rings and 'divanhane çivisi' which has one more diamond layer around the rose shaped ring are Ottoman ring styles. The "Dinahane çivisi" motif is formed by continual rows of diamonds around one large diamond at the top. This design was used in bracelets and necklaces. It was used in silver and gold rings, too. They are depicted in the works of the late 18th and early 19th century famous painters Konstantin Kapidagli and Antoine de Favray. Chokers and long necklaces were used by Ottoman ladies. Gold coins were strung on long gold or silver chains or on a string of pearls. Such necklaces were worn by rich women. The 18th century British Ambassador in Istanbul wrote that Hafize Sultan, the wife of Sultan Mustafa II, wore a string of pearls down to her knees with a diamond as big as a turkey egg and two strings of emeralds. . Jewelled golden, silver, crystal, mother-of-pearl or ivory belts were the essential accessories of the Ottoman woman. Belt buckles with floral or geometric motifs decorated with diamonds, rubies, turquoise, and emeralds were sometimes worn at the waist and other times over the hips. RUGS and CARPETS Ottoman Carpets Carpet weaving is the traditional art of Turks and the development of the arts linked to the Turks since its inception, with early woven fragments discovered in Central Asia. The knotted rug appears to have spread from Central Asia westwards through Persia and Anatolia with growing Turkish empires. Floor rugs have been known since ancient times going back to Assyrians and Babylonians but these were not knotted rugs but woven fabrics. The knotted carpet does not appear in Islamic countries until the emergence of the Seljuks in the 11th century. The Seljuk rugs found at Konya, capital of Anatolian Seljuks, are knotted in the Turkish- Ghiordes knot, in the same style as the carpet fragments found in tombs in the Altai mountains. (Hermitage Museum, Leningrad). Seljuk carpets can be characterized by geometric and stylized floriate motifs in repeating rows and by Kufic inscription border patterns. By the beginning of the 14th century, animal figures emerged in Turkish rugs. By the 16th century, the medallion motifs and the diverse foliate compostions had taken over, as the influences of the expanding Ottoman territories and the Iranian and Mamluke art were felt. The period claims two major groups of rugs; the Usak rugs with the essential motif of a medallion and the Ottoman court rugs with naturalistic motifs. The Ottoman court rugs used the Iranian Senna knot, in order to accomodate the very fine and detailed floriate designs and the clusters of Turkish flowers - the tulip, hyacinth, carnation, rose, and the blossoming branches. Ottoman court rugs also started to use silk in the warp and the weft on the looms of Istanbul and Bursa. In 1831, the first carpet factory with 100 looms was opened by Abdulhamid II at Kereke and even today, rugs in Anatolia, especially around Kayseri, Sivas, Konya, Kars, Isparta follow the traditional patterns of this truly Turkish art. Hereke carpets for the Ottoman Palaces: Although the history of carpets can be traced back to ancient times that is to the Turks who lived in Central Asia, the knotted pile carpet spread with the rise of the Seljuk Turks of Anatolia in the 11th century. New motifs and techniques developed rapidly, producing a rich variety of rugs throughout the many Turkish carpet weaving regions. Apart from carpets peculiar to such regions as Usak and Bergama, and those representing different periods of Turkish history, there are still other types based on motif and technique. These include carpets bearing animal motifs, the Holbein-type rug (Turkish rugs which appear in the works of Flemish painters), and the Ottoman palace carpets. Hereke carpets belong to the last category. The first Turkish weaving workshop was established in 1843. In Hereke, a small coastal town 60 kilometres from Istanbul on the bay of Izmit. It also supplied the royal palaces with silk brocades and other textiles. Known as the Hereke Imperial Factory, the mill was subsequently enlarged to include looms producing cotton fabric. Silk brocades and velvets for drapes and upholstery were manufactured at a workshop known as the "kamhane". In 1850 the cotton looms were moved to a factory in Bakirköy, west of Istanbul, and one hundred jacquard looms were installed in Hereke. Although in the early years the factory produced exclusively for the Ottoman palaces, as production increased the woven products were available in the Grand Bazaar in the second half of the 19th century. In 1878 a fire in the factory caused extensive damage, and it was not reopened until 1882. Carpet production began in Hereke in 1891 and expert carpet weavers were brought from the famous carpet weaving centres of Sivas, Manisa and Ladik. The carpets were all handwoven, and in the early years they were either made for the Ottoman palaces or as gifts for visiting statesmen. The number of looms steadily increased to meet the demand and, when Hereke carpets went on sale in Istanbul, their fame quickly spread to Europe. Soon the Hereke factory was receiving many commercial orders and business flourished. Hereke carpets are known primarily for their fine weave. Silk thread or fine wool yarn and occasionally gold, silver and cotton thread are used in their production. Wool carpets produced for the palace had 60-65 knots per square centimetre, while silk carpets had 80-100 knots. The knots were of two main types: the "hekim" knot and the Turkish or Gördes knot.After each row is woven, a length of yarn is passed through it and this single-warp knot creates the denser knotting which permits finer and more intricate designs to be created. In some of the carpets, a relief effect is obtained by clipping the pile unevenly. The oldest Hereke carpets, now exhibited in Topkapi and other palaces in Istanbul, contain a wide variety of colours and designs. The Typical "palace carpet" features intricate floral designs, including the tulip, daisy, carnation, crocus, rose, lilac, and hyacinth. It often has quarter medallions in the corners. The medallion composition used in rugs made in Usak, in western Turkey, since the 16th century was widely used at the Hereke factory. These medallions are curved on the horizontal axis and taper to points on the vertical axis.Hereke prayer rugs feature patterns of geometric motifs, tendrils and lamps as background designs within the representation of a mihrap (prayer niche). Once referring solely to carpets woven at Hereke, the term "Hereke carpet" now refers to any high quality carpet woven using similar techniques. Hereke carpets remain among the finest and most valuable examples of woven carpets in the world. ~~~ FELT--- The history of felt is far older than weaving, going back to the Uighur period in Central Asia and to the Hittites in Anatolia. Relief carvings found at the Hittite cities of Bogazköy and Yazilikaya depict people wearing felt caps and clothes, and fragments of felt dating from the 4th or 5th century BC was discovered at Pazirik in Central Asia, showing that the ancient Turks had also known how to make felt. On the evidence of findings in tombs archaeologists know that felt played an important part in the lives of the Scythians, Sarmatians and Malkars of Karaçay. The Türkmens traditionally lived in tents made of white and black felt symbolizing wealth and poverty, and the Kazakhs lived in felt tents known as kiyiz üy. Felt is variously known throughout the region as kidhiz, kidiz, kiz, kiiz and kiyiz. Felt making was widespread among the Seljuk and Ottoman Turks, and these craftsmen played an important role in the mystic trade organizations known as ahi. The uncle of the famous 13th century mystic Haci Bektas Veli was Keçeci Baba (Father of the Felt Makers), who lived in the village of Keçeci in the district of Erbaa in Tokat. Although felt is mainly made by machine today, some continues to be made by hand in parts of Turkey. . The last remaining felt makers are to be found in such Turkish provinces as Afyon, Sanliurfa, Konya, Balikesir, Izmir, Kars and Erzurum. One of their most interesting products is the stiff felt cloak known as kepenek worn by shepherds. These distinctive garments protect the wearer from heat in summer and from cold and wet in winter. Indoors, plain felt blankets made of white wool are spread over cushions for sitting on in winter, and felt mats are laid over both seats and beds. Colourfully embroidered felt saddle cloths are spread beneath horses saddles to soak up the sweat. Felt was once an indispensable part of daily life, also used to make saddle bags, shoes, headgear, mats, prayer rugs, and many other garments and household objects in various colors. In the eastern province of Agri you can still see men wearing the traditional kullik, a conical brown or white felt cap made from lamb’s wool. . In the neighboring province of Erzurum similar red caps are worn in the villages, and in the northwestern province of Kirklareli you will come across men wearing maroon felt fezzes. In Hakkâri in southeast Turkey people wear slippers known as refik, harik or herik, sewn from layers of felt and wool. In the villages of Trabzon elderly women wear fez-like caps made of dark red felt. Perhaps the most famous felt garments of all are the tall conical caps called sikke worn by the Mevlevi dervishes, which are made in the city of Konya by Mehmet Girgiç, and sold not only in Turkey, but all over the world. COSTUMES WOMAN COSTUMES During Ottoman times, a great distinction was made between the garments that women wore indoors and outdoors. Around the beginning of the 16th century, women's outdoor clothing consisted of ferace (overmantle), yaşmak (light-colored veil), and peçe (black veil). Winter overmantles were made of wool while those worn in summer were of silk. They had full sleeves and wrapped the body very loosely. Opening in the front, their lengths reached the ground. During the 18th century, trimmed collars were added to the overmantle. Over the years, the lengths of the "collars" varied, sometimes reaching as far as the lower hem as during the reign of Mahmud 11. During the second half of the 19th century skirt fronts were cut round and were fastened with a single button. Edges were embellished with pleating. Overmantle colors played an important role during Ottoman times: Muslim women wore red, blue, or green feraces while those worn by non-Muslim women were of paler shades. Yaşmaks were made from a fine, soft, white fabric and consisted of two parts: one that was wrapped about the head covering it to the eyebrows and another that covered the lower part of the face to just the bridge of the nose. The çarşaf, a baggy outer garment, is a fairly late addition to the Ottoman woman's wardrobe, having been introduced from Syria after 1872. Made from two long pieces of cloth joined together and fastened in pleats at the waist with a drawstring, it was worn together with a transparent veil over the face. This innovation did not always meet with approval; Sultan Abdiilhamid 11 for example expressly forbade the women of his palace to wear it. The baggy Çarşaf was in some cases replaced by a two-piece affair consisting of a skirt and cape. Within the home, Ottoman women of the 16th and 17th centuries dressed in ankle-length trousers called şalvar, long-sleeved shifts of a seersucker gauze that reached down to the heels, long-sleeved cardigans, and robes known as kaftan. Open in the front and lacking any trimming, the fullness of the skirts of these robes was increased by the addition of narrow godets from the waist down. This style is common in skirts until the 19th century. The dresses called üçetek (having a three-panelled skirt) and dörtetek (having a four-panelled skirt) make their appearance in the early 19th century. Another costume consisting of baggy shalwars, a short, tight~fitting jacket embroidered with silver thread, and a sash with embroidered ends bound at the waist was as elegant as it was comfortable to wear. Blouses were made of seersucker or silk and had cuffs and collars trimmed with lace. A type of dress called bindalli made from velvet or satin and heavily embroidered with elaborate patterns in silver and gold braid were indispensable attire for special occasions such as bridal henna-parties. One result of steadily increasing European influence on the Ottoman Empire was the occasional use of imported European fabrics in the making of traditional woman's garments beginning in the 18th century. During the 19th century, such traditional garments as the üçetek and shalwar are cast aside in favor of costumes influenced by Parisian fashions. Traditional dresses are replaced by close-fitting corseted garments, blouses with long, full sleeves, and long, flounced skirts. Such attire was naturally accompanied by accessories such as silk stockings, fans, gloves, and parasols. The most important garment in any woman's life is her wedding-dress. During every period, wedding-dresses have been made using the most expensive fabrics available according to the prevailing fashion and style. Until fairly late in the 19th century, Ottoman brides dressed in lively colors (red was a particular favorite) at their weddings. The bridal veil was also made of red gauze well into the 19th century and was embroidered with silver and gold braid. European fashions however begin to weigh heavily in the design of Ottoman bridal costumes from about the 1870's onward. While the fabrics are silk, the colors tend to be pastel pinks, blues, and creams. The gowns are made in two parts and have a train while the traditional silver and gold braid embellishments are augmented with lace, pearls, and sequins. During this period, bridal gowns were sometimes worn beneath a matching fur-lined kaftan.In 1898, Princess Naime, daughter of Abdülhamid II, wore a pure-white bridal gown at her wedding. The fashion of the bride's wearing white thus introduced by the court was to influence the rest of Turkish society in the following century. SCIENCE and TECHNOLOGY Ottoman science developed further owing to the personal interest of Mehmed II and the educational institutions which he established after the conquest of Istanbul. Consequently, some brilliant scholars emerged in the sixteenth century and made original contributions to science in this most vivid period of Ottoman history of science. Mehmed the Conqueror patronized the Islamic scholars and at the same time he ordered the Greek scholar from Trabzon Georgios Amirutzes and his son to translate the Geography book of Ptolemy into Arabic and to draw a world map. Mehmed II's interest in European culture had started while he was the own prince settled in the Manisa Palace. In 1445, Italian humanist Ciriaco d'Ancona and other Italians who were in the Palace taught him Roman and European history. While Patriarch Gennadious prepared his work on the Christian belief İ'tikad nâme (The Book on Belief) for the sultan, Francesco Berlinghieri and Roberto Valtorio wished to present their works Geographia and De re Militari. On the other hand, Mehmed II encouraged the scholars of his time to produce works in their special fields; e.g. for the comparison of al-Ghazzali's criticisms of peripatetic philosophers regarding metaphysical matters, expressed in his work titled Tahafut al-Falasifa (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), and Ibn Rushd's answers to these criticisms in his work Tahafut al-Tahafut (The Incoherence of Incoherence), he ordered two scholars of his time, Hocazade and 'Ala al-Din al-Tusi, each to write a work on this subject (Adıvar, 1983; İhsanoğlu, 1992/1). No doubt the most notable scientist of the Conqueror's period is Ali Kuşçu, a representative of the Samarkand tradition. The total number of his works on mathematics and astronomy is twelve. One of them is his commentary on the Zij-i Uluğ Bey in Persian. His two works in persian, namely, Risala fi'l-Hay'a (Treatise on Astronomy) and Risala Fi'l-Hisab (Treatise on Arithmetic) were taught in the Ottoman medreses. He rewrote these two works in Arabic with some additions under new titles, al-Fathiyya (Commemoration of Conquest) and al-Muhammadiyya (The Book dedicated to Sultan Muhammed), respectively. Another noteworthy scholar of the Bayezid II period (1481-1512) was Molla Lûtfi. He wrote a treatise about the classification of sciences titled Mawdu'at-Ulum (Subjects of the Sciences) in Arabic and compiled a book on geometry titled Tad'if al-Madhbah (Duplication of Cube) which was partly translated from Greek. Mîrîm Çelebi (d. 1525) who was a well known astronomer and mathematician of this period and the grandson of Ali Kuşçu and Kadızâde-i Rûmî, contributed to the establishment of the scientific traditions of mathematics and astronomy and was renowned for the commentary he wrote on the Zij of Uluğ Bey. Scientific literature developed considerably in the period of Sultan Süleymân the Magnificent. We find two major mathematical books in Turkish entitled Jamal al-Kuttab wa Kamal al-Hussah (Beauty of Scribes and Perfection of Accountants) and 'Umdat al-Hisah (Treatise on arithmetic) by Nasuh al-Silahi al-Matraki (d. 971/1564). His book in Turkish entitled Beyân-ı Menâzil-i Sefer-i Irakeyn (Description of the Stopping Places of the Campaign to the Two Iraqs), related to geography, should also be mentioned. Musa b. Hamun (d. 1554), one of the famous Jewish physicians from Andalusian descent, was appointed as Sultan Süleymân's physician and wrote the first Turkish and one of the earliest independent works on dentistry which is based on Greek, Islamic, and Uighur Turkish medical sources and in particular Sabuncuoğlu Ceerefeddin's works (Terzioğlu, 1977). In the sixteenth century, important works on astronomy were written by the representatives of the Egypt-Damascus tradition of astronomy-mathematics. The greatest astronomer of this period was Taki al-Din al-Rasid (d. 1585) who combined the Egyptian-Damascus and Samarkand traditions of astronomy and mathematics in his studies. He wrote more than thirty books in Arabic on the subjects of mathematics, astronomy, mechanics, and medicine. From the sixteenth century onwards, noteworthy geographical works were produced by Pîrî Reis, In 1511, Pîrî Reis drew his first map. This map is part of the world map prepared on a large scale. It was drawn on the basis of his rich and detailed drafts an in addition, European maps including Columbus' map of America. This first Ottoman map which included preliminary information about the New World represents south western Europe, north western Africa, south eastern and Central America. It is a portalano, without latitude and longitude lines but with lines delineating coasts and islands. Pîrî Reis drew his second map and presented it to Süleymân the Magnificent in 1528. only the part which contains the North Atlantic Ocean and the then newly discovered areas of Northern and Central America is extant. Pîrî Reis also wrote a book entitled Kitâb-ı Bahriye (Book of the Sea) (1521). In this work, Pîrî Reis presents drawings and maps of the cities on the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts, and gives extensive information about navigation and nautical astronomy. Admiral Seydî Ali Reis (d. 1562), who wrote the work in Turkish titled al-Muhit (The Ocean), was a notable figure of the period in maritime geography. This work contains astronomical and geographical information necessary for long sea voyages and his own observations about the Indian Ocean. Another work of the sixteenth century which contains information about the geographical discoveries and the New World is the book entitled Târih-i Hind-i Garbî (History of Western India). This work, whose author is unknown, was presented to Sultan Murâd III in 1583. It was based on Spanish and Italian geographical sources. It is important in showing that the geographical discoveries of the West were known to the Ottomans. The work has three parts; the third part which is the most important and which comprises two thirds of the whole book, relates the adventures of Columbus, Balboa, Magellan, Cretes, and Pizarro during the sixty years from the discovery of America in 1492 until 1552 (Goodrich, 1990). Apparently, cartography was organized as a profession in the Ottoman Empire, for example, in the seventeenth century, fifteen individuals were occupied with the art of surveying, in eight locations in Istanbul and nearby areas. ~ CAMPAIGNS and THE ARMY . ARMY And MILITARY RANKS Ottoman armies consisted of salaried kapıkulu regulars, topraklı regional irregulars, short-term levied called miri-askeris, yerli-neferats consisting of the entire Muslim population of a town called up for a local defence, and the gönüllüyan, a general mass of tribal irregulars. The establishment of a regular army early in the 14th. Century saw the emergence of Byzantine and Classical Islamic elements in th eOttoman battle array.Byzantine influence was strong because of the important role played by Christian vassals,particularly in siege warfare. By the 16th century Ottoman tactics had reached their classic form.within a formidable system of entrenchments, top arabalari gun-waggons and artillery stood the Sultan, his personal guard of solaks, and the Janissaries armed with arquebuses.On their immediate flanks were the armoured alti bölük housed cavalry.Azap infantry assambled in front of the artillary and to the rear, where they and the muteferika guarded the baggage train.On their flanks stood the provincial sipahi cavalry,whose tast was to draw an enemy to the azaps.They in turn would absorb the charge, then move aside to allow the artillery and Janissaries to open fire. Finally the flanking sipahis would attack and, where possible, surround the foe.The Janissaries were, of course, also trained to attack, but they did so at a rush in large closely-packed formations which rendered their gunfire largely ineffective. Turcoman nomads, the first element in the Ottoman army , were generally known as akincis if they served for one campaign as volunteers receiving booty instead of pay,and as yürüksi if they formed a tribal contingent. Such troops were horse-archers, rarely owning more than leather lamellar armour and still using the ancient Central Asian lassoo as a weapon Ex-Byzantine troops included cavalry and infantry. Though many used the bow, they did not employ Turcoman tactics. Most of the gazis also seem to have fought in traditional Islamic style as mixed cavalry and infantry.The horse men were known as müsellem (tax-free men) and were organised under the overall command of sancak beys into hundereds, under subasis, and thousands, under binbasis.The foor-soldiers, or yaya, were compareably divided into tens,hunderds and thousands.These infantry archers occasionally fought for Byzantium,where they were known as mourtatoi.Müsellems and yayas were at first paid wages,but by the time of Murat I (1359) they were normally given lands or fiefs in return for military service, the yayas also having the special responsibilty for the protection of roads and bridges. Ranking Structure These titles could have different meaning in different areas or types of unit.Basically, however, ranks ran as follows Administrative Officers Nazır : Supervisor of a Crops Ağa : Commander of a regimentor large unit Kethüda : Lieutenant or assistant to a commanding officer Kethüda Yeri : Executive Officers Katib : Chief Scribe Çavuş Başı : Sergeant-Major Kapuçu : Chief Orderly Operational Offices Çorbacı : Colonel Odabaşı : Colonel's Assistant Vakilharç : Commissary Bayraktar : Standard Bearer Aşçı başı : Chief Cook Saki : Water Bearer These last three were middle-ranking field officers.There were also various mülazim and kullukçu, junior officers or orderlies, and çavuş ( sergeant or disciplinary office ) The Kapıkulu Corps and Janissaries According to legend the Kapikulu Corps was set up by Kara Halil Candarli, brother in law of Sheikh Edebali.Its infantry units or Janissaries were supposedly founded in 1326 when the recruits were blessed by Haci Bektas.]anissaries were recruited almost exclusİvely from ex-Christian converts, and so it is interesting that the Bektaşis should have adopted so many Christian attitudes and rituals.Their founder and their patron saint both became identified with Greek Orthodox saints, while many Janissaries also carried quotations from the Gospel as lucky charms. Prisoners captured during gazi raids provided plenty of manpower during the 14th century , and not until 1 438 was the devşirmei instigated. This was a kind of human levy; although against Muslim law, it proved unavoidable. The devJirme was even popular in some areas. Bosnian Muslims arranged to be included, though Muslims were normally exempt, while in poor regions parents sometimes bribed officials to take their sons and so give them better prospects in life. Back in the capital the most intelligent were chosen for training as içoğlanı,pages in the Topkapi Palace,while the rest went to work on farms where they learned Turkish and the Muslim faith before becoming Janissaries. The iç oğlani were trained for up to seven years in palace schools which concentrated on character-building, leadership, miIitary and athletic prowess, lan- guages, religion, science, and a creative art of the pupil's choosing. Three further examinations selected men for the Kapikulu cavalry , to be Kapikulu officers and, at the top of the tree, to become milİtary or administrative leaders. All remained bachelors until their training ended, when most married women who had been through a parallel schooling in the Palace harem.Unlike their christian foes, the Ottoman Turks rarely killed captives and a large number of young un-ransomed prisioners were considered a waste of military talent.The best were incorporated into the cavalry six regiments, and the Ottoman rulers also created an elite infantry regiments called Yeniceri The Janissaries The Janissaries.-Two notable institutions created by the Ottoman sultans were the military organization of the Janissaries and the civil service, which has been aptly called the "Ruling Institution" by Professor Lybyer. These institutions evolved from the practice by the Ottoman leaders in Anatolia of employing captured prisoners as mercenary troops. Later on, during the conquest of the Balkans, the Turks, with the religious sanction of the grand mufti, took as tribute from the Christian population a percentage of the male children. These became the "slaves" of the sultan. Completely severed from their Christian families, these children were brought up as Moslems and imbued with religious devotion to Islam and loyalty to the sultan. The more able were enrolled in the palace corps of pages and trained to become administrators and officials in the state bureaucracy, the Ruling Institution. The remainder were given a military education and became members of the famous Janissary corps, recognized in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries as the best trained and most effective soldiers of Europe. With a military force and a bureaucracy thus recruited from the non-Turkish and non-Moslem subjects, the earlier Ottoman sultans secured effective control over the empire. This they were able to maintain until the forces of corruption inherent in a military state based essentially on exploitation undermined the integrity of the Ruling Institution and changed basically the structure of the Janissary organization. The Janissaries were closely associated with the religious order of the Bektash Dervishes, whose agha, or chief, held a commission as colonel in the Janissary organization. Dervishes were attached to all the military units of the Janissaries in their barracks and to the troops in the field. Thus the Janissaries closely affiliated with the Moslem Institution of ulemas, muftis, and cadis acquired elements of political power which threatened that of the sultans. Growing weakness of the sultans in the seventeenth century resulted in the granting of more privileges to the Janissaries, whose officers became a class exempted from the burdens of taxation which even the Moslem population bore. Although Janissaries held a very special position in the empire and their officers had many opportunities to enrich themselves, the rank and file frequently found themselves without pay when the government was in financial difficulties. Officer Gradually, the very structure of Janissary organization was changed. Because of the opportunities open to the officers, many Turks sought to have their children enrolled in the Janissary corps, and by the last quarter of the seventeenth century the Janissaries ceased to be recruited from Christian families. Meanwhile, many ill-paid Janissary privates engaged in crafts and commercial activities, becoming prominent in so-called "corporations," which were comparable to the craft and merchant guilds of medieval Europe. This military organization holding a specially privileged position closely allied with a powerful religious brotherhood, eventually became intimately associated with important economic organizations. It thus grew to be a potent instrument of political power. The Janissaries, by riots, and mutinies, forced the sultans to dismiss members of the Divan and grand viziers, and even deposed sultans. While it was frequently described by historians as a Praetorian Guard, the Janissary corps, through its affiliations with other Ottoman institutions, had wider alliances than any mere body of mercenary troops. The growing corruption of the Janissary corps undermined the military power of the Ottoman Empire and exposed it to foreign invasion. It threatened the very existence of orderly government. Not until 1826 was its power broken and the Ottoman state freed from this dangerous incubus. It was only when the ulemas and the members of the Ruling Institution had come to understand its threat to the very existence of the state that Sultan Mahmoud II was able to obtain their consent to the destruction of the Janissary corps. The Cavalry Until the mid-18th. Century provincial sipahi cavalry formed the majority of most Ottoman armies.They numbered around 40,000 men in the 15th and 16th centuries, over half of whom came from the European provinces (Rumelia).Ordinary timar fiefs supported one horseman,while the holders of larger zeamets were also expected to equip mounted retainers or cebelüs.Large still were the hass fiefs of the Sultan's family, viziers and favorite ministers. An ordinary sipahi lived in a village, work his own land, had to pay the peasants for most of their services and received no salary. The Vassals Vassals played a more important part in Turkish victories than is generally realized .Most areas accepted Ottoman Suzeranity after the Turks captured their key towns.The sons of many princes served as müteferrika cavalry in the Ottoman capital.T his regiment,which also included the sons of turkish nobleman, formed part of the Kapikulu coprs.Müteferrika were paid, uniformed and educated by the Ottomans while at the same time being hostages. The Infantry Ottoman infantry forces went by a confusing number of names, the meanings of which could change over the centuries.Among the first were azaps.Most were Anatolian turks and at first they were only paid for the duration of a campaing.Later they got regular salaries and als acted as garrison troops. The gönüllüyan (volunteer infantry) who manned local stronpoints could be Muslim or Christian, and were similarly supported by their fellow villagers. Voyniks were Balkan Christians.They are first recorded as the infantry followers of Christian sipahis fighting for Murat I. . MEHTER The Mehterhane, or military band coprs, had long been a distinctive feature of the Ottoman Army.Mehterhane bands normally stood ina crescent formation.The kös player stood slightly forward,like a star within this crescent Before the band started to play a junior sergeant stepped forward and called "Attention Mehterbaşı Aga, it is time for happiness and fun".The concert then began with the Mehterbasi shouting "Haydi Ya Allah!" - "Attention, let's go. The history of Mehter that (which is) considered as the oldest military of the world, reaches to Orhun inscriptions that are the oldest written sources of Turkish history from VIIth century. Mehter, today, is a splended monument of Turkish heroism and understanding of domination reaching to universal dimensions. The first military band of the World history carries the emotive rhytms of ancient Turkish music to the present time. The clothing of Mehter has the distinct characteristics and beauty with regard to its color and cut. It's possible to see all the colors on their costumes. The instruments used are shrill pipe,pipe,kos drum, kettle drum,bell and human voice. Mehter, considered as the beginning of the history of military music and the founder of world's military bands, today, continues its actions in the constitution of Istanbul Military Museum and Culturel Center which belongs to the General Staff. Mehter, attracting the interest of the whole World with itsconcerts in the country and abroad, continues its presence and effective power today and keeps its lovely place in the hearth of Turkish Republic. CAMPAIGNS The crusade of Nicopolis The immadiate threat to the Ottomans in europe was the arrival of a new European Crusade Army, involving the major states of the West as well as those most immediately threatened by the Ottoman advance.Responding to appeals, Pope Boniface IX stimulated a Crusade.Crusaders came to Buda from England, Scotland, Poland, Bohemia, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland as well as from the lands of southeastern Europe more directly threatened by the Ottomans.In the spring of 1396 Sigismund led a large Crusaders force through Serbia, crossing the Danube at Nicopolis and then capturing the Danubian towns of Vidin and Orsova, massacring all the Muslims they could find.But Beyazit brought together contingents from Anatolia and routed the aatckers (September 25, 1396).Thousands were taken prisoners, including nobles from all over Europe.the Ottoman victory over the Crusaders at nicopolis increased European rear of the Ottomans while adding to Ottoman prestige throughout the Islamic World.significantly,Beyazit was designated as sultan, or civil ruler of Islam. ~~~~~~~ HAREM~~~~~~~ HAREM, AND THE OTTOMAN WOMEN WOMEN Harem in the Ottoman Empire The image of a harem conjures visions of opulent surroundings filled with beautiful, sensuous women whose sole duty was to entertain an aging yet still lustful sheik or sultan. This image may have been based on the imperial harems of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries of the Ottoman Empire. In this period of history, harems played an important role in the governing of the Ottoman Empire. This most renown period was known as the Reign of Women, the Kadinlar Sultanati. The involvement of the harem women, and more specifically, the Valide Sultan (Sultan's Mother or Queen Mother) and the Sultan's favourites (favoured harem women), in state politics, diminished the power and position of the Sultan. As the Sultan was the head of the government (or Divan), this interference proved to be detrimental to the Ottoman state. Historical Background The harem was defined to be the women's quarter in a Muslim household. The Imperial harem (also known as the Seraglio harem) contained the combined households of the Valide Sultan (Queen Mother), the Sultan's favourites (hasekis), and the rest of his concubines (women whose main function was to entertain the Sultan in the bedchamber). It also contained all the Sultanas' (daughters of the Sultan) households. Many of the harem women would never see the Sultan and became the servants necessary for the daily functioning of the harem. The reasons for harem existence can be seen from Ottoman cultural history. Ottoman tradition relied on slave concubinage along with legal marriage for reproduction. Slave concubinage was the taking of slave women for sexual reproduction. It served to emphasize the patriarchal nature of power (power being "hereditary" through sons only). Slave concubines, unlike wives, had no recognized lineage. Wives were feared to have vested interests in their own family's affairs, which would interfere with their loyalty to their husband, hence, concubines were preferred, if one could afford them. This led to the evolution of slave concubinage as an equal form of reproduction that did not carry the risks of marriage, mainly that of the potential betrayal of a wife. The powers of the harem women were exercised through their roles within the family. Although they had no legitimate claim to power, as their favour grew with the sultan, they acquired titles such as "Sultan Kadin" which solidified their notion of political power and legitimacy within the royal family was reflected with titles including "sultan." During the sixteenth century, both male and female members of the imperial family used the title of "sultan". As the role of the royal favourite concubine (title: Sultan) eroded during the seventeenth century, the title designation also changed to "kadin" or "haseki," which were names originally reserved for less prominent members of the royal family. Henceforth, only the mother of the reigning Sultan was addressed as a Sultan: the Valide Sultan. The retention of the title of Sultan for the mother indicated the power of the Valide Sultan. After all, men could take as many concubines and odalisques as they desired, but they only had one mother. Many of the concubines and odalisques of the Imperial harem were reputed to be among the most beautiful of women in the Ottoman Empire. Young girls of extraordinary beauty were sent to the sultan's court, often as gifts from the governors. Numerous harem women were Circassians, Georgians, and Abkhasians. They were usually bought from slave markets after being kidnapped or else sold by impoverished parents. Many Georgian and Circassian families encouraged their daughters to enter concubinage through slavery, as that promised to be a life of luxury and comfort. All slaves that entered the harem were termed odalisques or "women of the court" - general servants in the harem. Odalisques were not usually presented to the Sultan. Those that were of extraordinary beauty and talent, were seen as potential concubines, and trained accordingly. They learned to dance, recite poetry, play musical instruments, and master the erotic arts. Only the most gifted odalisques were presented to the Sultan as his personal gedikli (maids-in-waiting). Generally, odalisques would be assigned as servants to the oda (or court) of a harem mistress. For example, the Mistress of the Robes, or the Keeper of Baths, or the Keeper of Jewels, etc. It was possible for these odalisques to rise through the ranks of the harem hierarchy and enjoy security through their power and position. The most powerful women in the harem were the Valide Sultan and the Kadins. The Valide Sultan was responsible for the maintenance of order and peace inside the harem. Being a female elder in the Imperial family, the Valide was expected to serve as a guide and teacher to her son by educating him about the intricacies of state politics. Often, she was asked to intervene upon the Sultan's decisions when the Mufti (head of the Muslim religion), or the Viziers (ministers) felt that the Sultan may have made an erroneous decision. Kadin's were the Sultan's favourite women. Tradition allowed only four principal Kadins but unlimited number of concubines. Kadins were equivalent in rank to that of a legal wife, and were given apartments, slaves, and eunuchs. For example, during the reign of Selim II (the Sot), his favourite, the bas kadin Nurbanu had an entourage of one hundred and fifty ladies-in-waiting. The amount of properties, clothing, jewelry, and allowances given, was all-proportional to the affection the Sultan held for them. Odalisques were at the bottom of the harem hierarchy. They were considered to be general servants in the harem. They were not usually seen to be beautiful enough to become presented to the Sultan. Odalisques that were seen as potential candidates for concubinage were trained to become talented entertainers. The greatest honour a Sultan could bestow upon a male guest was to present him with an odalisque from his court who had not yet become his concubine. These women were greatly coveted as they were beautiful and talented, and what is more important, had links into the harem hierarchy. Concubines could be considered an equivalent to the modern version of a "one night stand". They were odalisques that were presented to the Sultan and after that one night, they might never see the Sultan again unless the girl became pregnant with a male child. If she was successful in birthing a male child, then she would become an ikbal (favourite) to the Sultan. The female hierarchy followed the pattern of odalisques (virgins), concubines ("one night stands"), ikbals (favourites), and kadins (favourites "wives"). harem women formed only half of the harem hierarchy. Eunuchs were the integral other half of the harem. Eunuchs were considered to be less than men and thus unable to be "tempted" by the harem women and would remain solely loyal to the Sultan. Eunuchs were castrated men and hence possessed no threat to the sanctity of the harem. According to Muslim tradition, no man could lay his eyes on another man's harem, thus someone less than a man was required for the role of watchful guardianship over the harem women. Eunuchs tended to be male prisoners of war or slaves, castrated before puberty and condemned to a life of servitude. White eunuchs were first provided from the conquered Christian areas of Circassia, Georgia, and Armenia. They were also culled from Hungarian, Slavonian, and German prisoners of war. These white eunuchs were captured during the conflicts that arouse between the Ottoman Empire and the Balkan countries. Black eunuchs were captured from Egypt, Abyssinia and the Sudan. Black slaves were captured from the upper Nile and transported to markets on the Mediterranean Sea - Mecca, Medina, Beirut, Izmir and Istanbul. All eunuchs were castrated enroute to the markets by Egyptian Christians or Jews, as Islam prohibited the practice of castration but not the usage of castrated slaves. There were several different varieties of eunuchs: Sandali, or clean-shaven: The parts are swept off by a single cut of a razor, a tube (tin or wooden) is set in the urethra, the wound is cauterized with boiling oil, and the patient is planted in a fresh dung-hill. His diet is milk, and if under puberty he often survives. The eunuch whose penis is removed: He retains all the power of copulation and procreation without the wherewithal; and this, since the discovery of caoutchouc, has often been supplied. The eunuch, or classical thlibias and semivir, who has been rendered sexless by the removing of the testicles..., or by their being bruised..., twisted, seared or bandaged. Black eunuchs tended to be of the first category: Sandali, while white eunuchs were of the second or third categories, thus have part or their entire penis intact. Because of their lack of parts, black eunuchs served in the harem, while white eunuchs served in the government (and away from the women). At the height of the Ottoman Empire, as many as six to eight hundred eunuchs served within the Seraglio (palace). Most eunuchs arrived as gifts from governors of different provinces. At the end of their training as young eunuch pages, eunuchs were assigned to service. White eunuchs were placed under the patronage of various government officials or even into the service of the Sultan himself (like in Topkapi Palace). If they were black eunuchs, they were placed into the service of a harem personage, such as a Kadin, or a daughter or sister of the Sultan. They could also serve under the Kizlar Agha (master of the girls), the Chief Black Eunuch. The Chief Black Eunuch (Kizlar Agha) The Kizlar Agha was the third highest-ranking officer of the empire, after the Sultan and the Grand Vizier (Chief Minister). He was the commander of the baltaci corps (or halberdiers - part of the imperial army). His position was a pasha (general) of three tails (tails referring to peacock tails, and the most number of tails permitted being four and worn by the Sultan). He could approach the Sultan at any time, and functioned as the private messenger between the Sultan and the Grand Vizier. He was the most important link between the Sultan and the Valide Sultan (mother of the sultan). The Kizlar Agha led the new odalisque to the Sultan's bedchamber, and was the only "man" who could enter the harem should there have been any nocturnal emergencies. His duties were to protect the women, to provide and purchase the necessary odalisques for the harem, to oversee the promotion of the women (usually after the death of a higher-ranking kadin) and eunuchs. He acted as a witness for the Sultan's marriage, birth ceremonies, and arranged all the royal ceremonial events, such as circumcision parties, weddings, and fêtes. He also delivered sentence to harem women accused of crimes, taking the guilty women to the executioner to be placed into sacks and drowned in the Bosphorus which lay outside the Topkapi Palace. The Chief White Eunuch (Kapi Agha) The Chief White Eunuch was the head of the Inner Service (which is the palace bureaucracy) and the head of the Palace School (school for white eunuchs). He was also Gatekeeper-in-Chief, head of the infirmary, and master of ceremonies of the Seraglio. The Kapi Agha controlled all messages, petitions, and State documents addressed to the Sultan, and was allowed to speak to the Sultan in person. In 1591, Murad III transferred the powers from the white to the black eunuchs as there were too many embezzlements and various other nefarious crimes being attributed to the white eunuchs, among them being purported intimacy with the harem women. . The Kapi Agha's loss of powers was seen through the decreasing of his ceremonial duties (which had various stipends entailed) and the decrease in his overall income. Originally, the Kapi Agha was the only eunuch allowed to speak to the Sultan alone, but as his importance decreased, the Valide Sultan and the Kizlar Agha were able to request private audience with the Sultan also. Because of their possible disloyalty, white eunuchs were assigned positions that did not bring them into contact with the harem women as many of them had incomplete castrations (still possessing of their penis). The total number of white eunuchs in the Seraglio at any given time was between 300 and 900. In the late sixteen hundreds, the power of the black eunuchs grew. During the Kadinlar Sultanati, the eunuchs increased their political leverage by taking advantage of child Sultans or mentally incompetent ones. It was during this period of enthronement of child Sultans that caused political instability. The young teenage Sultans were "guided" by regencies formed by the Valide Sultan, the Grand Vizier and the Valides other supporters. The Kizlar Agha was the Valide Sultan's and the Kadin's intimate and value accomplice. Harem Populations After the change in law regarding the Kafes and the loss of provincial governorships for the Princes. The harem population dramatically increased as the princes and their harems remained inside the Seraglio (Topkapi Palace) harem. The population further increased during the reigns of Murad III, Ahmed I, and Ibrahim, as they spent more time in the bedchamber than ever. The increase in harem women populations is also correlated by the increase in expenditures. During the reign of the Ibrahim (r. 1640-1648), the harem population experienced a minor increase while the correlated expenditures saw a whopping 28% increase from the beginning of his reign to the end of reign. This may have been due to the fact that Ibrahim was obsessed with furs and jewels. His desire to see furs everywhere in the harem greatly increased the harem expenditures as the price of furs would have gone up accordingly. This would also apply to the price of jewels too, as he sought jewels for the decoration of his beard. Although it is not recorded exactly how much the daily stipends were for all of the Sultan's Kadins and concubines, general figures were available indicating that the Valide Sultan continued to enjoy the role as most influential and powerful member of the dynastic family by having the highest stipend. Nurbanu Sultan received a daily stipend of 2,000 aspers (currency of the time), while her successor Safiye Sultan, received 3,000 aspers after the ascension of her son Mehmed III. In contrast, the highest stipends of leading public officials were: the mufti (750 aspers per day), the chief justices of Rumeli and Anatolia (572 and 573 aspers, respectively), and the chief Janissary Agha (500 aspers). Even the Sultan himself only received a 1,000 aspers stipend. After the Valide Sultan, the Kadins were next in the harem hierarchy to enjoy great status. Their status was even higher than the Sultana's (Aunts and sisters of the current Sultan) as they were accorded higher stipends. The Kadin's higher status arose from the fact that she was the mother of the potential future sultan. Murad III's favourite Safiye kadin received stipend of 700 aspers a day, while his sisters Ismihan and Geverhan Sultans received 250 and 300 aspers a day, respectively. Murad's aunt Mihrimah Sultan received the highest stipend (600 aspers a day) amongst all of the royal females descending from the previous Sultan. Non-haseki or non-favourite concubines tended to receive stipends that were greatly reduced from those of the haseki Kadins. This was demonstrated by the fact that at the end of Selim II's reign, the haseki Nurbanu received 1,000 aspers a day, while Selim's other consorts, each the mother of a son, received only 40 aspers. As the Sultans' attention turned away from government, many of the harem women were able to manipulate the Sultan into raising their stipends in order to be able to purchase many of their jewels and furs. By the reign of Ibrahim (r. 1640-1648), the role and stipend of the royal haseki had been diminished and instead the role and influence of the concubines had moderately increased as indicated by their stipends of 1,000 to 1,300 aspers. Other odalisques in the harem that served as general servants received stipends ranging from 13-200 aspers. Ibrahims' penchant for women correlates with the increase in harem population. As he increased his harem size, he required more furs and jewels and thus dipped further and further into the State treasuries in order to support his extravagent tastes. His many concubines and favourites also meant that an increase in stipends was necessary, as befitted their role in his pleasures. The general increase in harem women population also meant that the total amount of stipends required increased. The growth of the harem population follows a roughly parallel pattern with the harem expenditures. The increased spending caused a strain on the state treasury as the Sultan was spending increasing amounts of time in the harem rather than leading the Janissaries on conquest of infidel lands. Other factors that led to the diminishing of state income were the lack of campaigning or Ghazi (warfare on "infidels"- non-Muslim lands); the overall inflation of the economy, and the increase in bribery and corruption of state officials. Sultanas Harem Women and Politics The excessive interference of the harem women in state politics was instru- mental in the decline and fall of the empire. Ironically , such meddling began during the reign of Suleyman the Magnifıcent, the most powerful period in the empire's history (l520-66). It was then that the women moved with Roxalena from the Old Palace, built by Mehmed the Conqueror, to the Seraglio harem ( l 541 ) , and approached the seat of power .This marked the beginning of the Sultanate, of the Reİgn of Women, which lasted a century and a half, until the end of the struggle between Kösem and Turhan sultanas (1687). After Suleyman's death, the sultans no longer led their armies in campaign or in battle, retiring instead to the womb of the harem. They detached themselves from world affairs and spent most of their time in the company of women. This royal seclusion greatly diminished their ability to govern, and in varying degrees, sultanas began wielding influence over state officials, with bribery and patronage supplanting promotion on the basis of merit. A succession of child sultans and mentally deranged ones after Mehmed III's death in 1603 made women the power behind the throne. Death of Sultanas Agreat deal of mystery surrounds the woman who sleeps next to Mehmed theConqueror in a nameless coffin. The mullahs (Moslem theologians) claim it is lrene, Iater declared an Orthodox saint, with whom the sultan had become obsessed: ''He not only consumed dayes and nights with her but bumed with continual jealousie, according to William Pointer's 1566 allegory Palace of Pleasure. He offered her everything, but Irene would not abjure her faith. The mullahs reproached the sultan for courting a gavur (infidel). According to Richard Davey's Sultan and His Subjects (1897), one day Mehmed gathered all the mullahs in the courtyard of his palace. Irene stood in the center , concealed under a glittering veil, which the Sultan slowly lifted, revealing her exquisite beauty .''You see, she is more beautiful than any woman you have ever seen, he said, ''lovelier than the houries of your dreams. And 1 love her more than 1 do my own life. But my life is worthless compared to my love for lslam.'' He seized and twisted the long, golden tresses of Irene and, with one stroke of his scimitar, severed her head from her body. ln his poem Irene (1708), Charles Goring immortalizes this excruciating moment. Süleyman the Magnifıcent ordered the execution of his kadin Gülfem when she failed one night to appear in his bed. During one of his debauches, the mad Sultan lbrahim ordered al1 his women seized during the night, stuffed in sacks, and thrown into the Bosphorus. One was saved by French sailors and taken to Paris, where she must have had some stories to tell. Among the many powerful and interesting sultanas who lived, loved, and ruled in the Seraglio, three deserve special attention. Each embodies the nuances of the century in which she lived. Roxalena (1526- 58) was the fırst woman legal1y to marry a sultan, move into the Seraglio with her entourage, and gain complete ascendancy over the greatest of the sultans, Süleyman the Magnifıcent. Kösem Sultana reigned the longest and saw the most. And Nakshedil Sultana -Aimee de Rivery-lived the sort of life legends are made of. ATATURK Atatürk and the Turkish Nation Atatürk returned to Istanbul at the end of the war, his military reputation untarnished by the defeat of the empire that he had served. Revered by his troops as well as the Turkish masses, Atatürk soon emerged as the standard-bearer of the Turkish nationalist movement. Born in Thessaloniki in 1881, Atatürk was the son of a minor government official in a city where Turks outnumbered Greeks. His ardent Turkish nationalism dated from his early days as a cadet in the military school at Monastir (in the present-day Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) during a time of constant conflict between Ottoman troops and Macedonian guerrillas, who attacked the Turkish population in the region. Following graduation from the military academy in Istanbul, Atatürk held various staff positions and served in garrisons at Damascus and Thessaloniki, where he became involved in nationalist activities. He took part in the coup that forced Abdül Hamid II's abdication in 1909. Atatürk organized irregular forces in Libya during the war with Italy in 1911 and subsequently held field commands in the two Balkan wars (1912-13). Assigned to a post in the Ministry of War after the armistice, Atatürk quickly recognized the extent of Allied intentions toward the Ottoman Empire. Plans for Partitioning Turkey Allied troops--British, French, and Italian, as well as a contingent of Greeks--occupied Istanbul and were permitted under the conditions of the armistice to intervene in areas where they considered their interests to be imperiled. During the war, the Allies had negotiated a series of agreements that outlined not only the definitive dismantling of the Ottoman Empire but also the partitioning among them of what Turkish nationalists had come to regard as the Turkish homeland. According to these agreements, Russia was at last to be rewarded with possession of Istanbul and the straits, as well as eastern Anatolia as far south as Bitlis below Lake Van. France and Italy were conceded portions of Anatolia, and Britain had promised Izmir to Greece--although it had also been promised to Italy--to encourage Greek entry into the war in 1917. The Bolshevik government had renounced tsarist claims when it made its separate peace at Brest-Litovsk, but Britain, France, Italy, and Greece all pressed their respective claims at the Paris peace talks in 1919. All agreed with the provisions of President Woodrow Wilson's Fourteen Points calling for an independent Armenia and an autonomous Kurdistan. How the Allies would implement the clause providing that the Turkish-speaking nation "should be assured of a secure sovereignty" was not clear. The terms of a peace treaty with the Ottoman Empire were presented by the Allies in April 1920 at San Remo, Italy, and were embodied in the Treaty of Sèvres, which was concluded the following August. The treaty was shaped by the wartime agreements made by the Allies. In addition, France received a mandate over Lebanon and Syria (including what is now Hatay Province in Turkey), and Britain's mandate covered Iraq, Jordan, and Palestine. Eastern Thrace up to a line from the Black Sea to the Sea of Marmara as well as Izmir and its hinterland were to be occupied by Greece, with the final disposition of the territory to be decided in a plebiscite. The Treaty of Sèvres was never enforced as such, as events in Turkey soon rendered it irrelevant.ff 3 OF 5 Nationalist Movement The sultan was kept in the custody of the Allies to ensure the cooperation of an Ottoman administration, which had effective jurisdiction only in Istanbul and part of northern Anatolia, while they disposed of the rest of his empire. At the same time, a Turkish nationalist movement was organized under Atatürk's leadership to resist the dismemberment of Turkish-speaking areas. Atatürk had been sent to eastern Anatolia as inspector general, ostensibly to supervise the demobilization of Ottoman forces and the disposition of supplies, but more particularly to remove him from the capital after he had expressed opposition to the Allied occupation there. Upon his arrival at Samsun in May 1919, Atatürk proceeded to rally support for the nationalist cause and to recruit a nationalist army. Guerrilla warfare against the government gradually grew to full-fledged campaigns against the Greek army that threatened to involve the other Allied occupation forces. In July 1919, a nationalist congress met at Erzurum with Atatürk presiding to endorse a protocol calling for an independent Turkish state. In September the congress reconvened at Sivas. Although the delegates voiced their loyalty to the sultan-caliph, they also pledged to maintain the integrity of the Turkish nation. The congress adopted the National Pact, which defined objectives of the nationalist movement that were not open to compromise. Among its provisions were the renunciation of claims to the Arab provinces, the principle of the absolute integrity of all remaining Ottoman territory inhabited by a Turkish Muslim majority, a guarantee of minority rights, the retention of Istanbul and the straits, and rejection of any restriction on the political, judicial, and financial rights of the nation. Negotiations continued between the nationalist congress and the Ottoman government, but to no avail. Atatürk resigned from the army when relieved of his duties. The naming of a chief minister in Istanbul considered sympathetic to the nationalist cause brought a brief improvement in relations, however, and the Ottoman parliament, which met in January 1920, approved the National Pact. In reaction to these developments, Allied occupation forces seized public buildings and reinforced their positions in the capital, arrested and deported numerous nationalist leaders, and had parliament dismissed. Allied actions brought a quick response from the nationalists. In April they convened the Grand National Assembly in Ankara, in defiance of the Ottoman regime, and elected Atatürk its president. The Law of Fundamental Organization (also known as the Organic Law) was adopted in January 1921. With this legislation, the nationalists proclaimed that sovereignty belonged to the nation and was exercised on its behalf by the Grand National Assembly. 4 OF 5 War of Independence During the summer and fall of 1919, with authorization from the Supreme Allied War Council, the Greeks occupied Edirne, Bursa, and Izmir. A landing was effected at the latter port under the protection of an Allied flotilla that included United States warships. The Greeks soon moved as far as Usak, 175 kilometers inland from Izmir. Military action between Turks and Greeks in Anatolia in 1920 was inconclusive, but the nationalist cause was strengthened the next year by a series of important victories. In January and again in April, Ismet Pasha defeated the Greek army at Inönü, blocking its advance into the interior of Anatolia. In July, in the face of a third offensive, the Turkish forces fell back in good order to the Sakarya River, eighty kilometers from Ankara, where Atatürk took personal command and decisively defeated the Greeks in a twenty-day battle. An improvement in Turkey's diplomatic situation accompanied its military success. Impressed by the viability of the nationalist forces, both France and Italy withdrew from Anatolia by October 1921. Treaties were signed that year with Soviet Russia, the first European power to recognize the nationalists, establishing the boundary between the two countries. As early as 1919, the Turkish nationalists had cooperated with the Bolshevik government in attacking the newly proclaimed Armenian republic. Armenian resistance was broken by the summer of 1921, and the Kars region was occupied by the Turks. In 1922 the nationalists recognized the Soviet absorption of what remained of the Armenian state. The final drive against the Greeks began in August 1922. In September the Turks moved into Izmir, where thousands were killed during the ensuing fighting and in the disorder that followed the city's capture. Greek soldiers and refugees, who had crowded into Izmir, were rescued by Allied ships. The nationalist army then concentrated on driving remaining Greek forces out of eastern Thrace, but the new campaign threatened to put the Turks in direct confrontation with Allied contingents defending access to the straits and holding Istanbul, where they were protecting the Ottoman government. A crisis was averted when Atatürk accepted a British-proposed truce that brought an end to the fighting and also signaled that the Allies were unwilling to intervene on behalf of the Greeks. In compliance with the Armistice of Mundanya, concluded in October, Greek troops withdrew beyond the Maritsa River, allowing the Turkish nationalists to occupy territory up to that boundary. The agreement entailed acceptance of a continued Allied presence in the straits and in Istanbul until a comprehensive settlement could be reached. At the end of October 1922, the Allies invited the nationalist and Ottoman governments to a conference at Lausanne, Switzerland, but Atatürk was determined that the nationalist government should be Turkey's sole representative. In November 1922, the Grand National Assembly separated the offices of sultan and caliph and abolished the former. The assembly further stated that the Ottoman regime had ceased to be the government of Turkey when the Allies seized the capital in 1920, in effect abolishing the Ottoman Empire. Mehmet VI went into exile on Malta, and his cousin, Abdülmecid, was named caliph.. 5 OF 5 Turkey was the only power defeated in World War I to negotiate with the Allies as an equal and to influence the provisions of the resultant treaty. Ismet Pasha was the chief Turkish negotiator at the Lausanne Conference, which opened in November 1922. The National Pact of 1919 was the basis of the Turkish negotiating position, and its provisions were incorporated in the Treaty of Lausanne, concluded in July 1923. With this treaty, the Allies recognized the present-day territory of Turkey and denied Turkey's claim to the Mosul area in the east (in present-day Iraq) and Hatay, which included the Mediterranean port of Alexandretta (Iskenderun). The boundary with the newly created state of Iraq was settled by a League of Nations initiative in 1926, and Iskenderun was ceded in 1939 by France during its rule as mandatory power for Syria. Detailed provisions of the treaty regulated use of the straits. General supervisory powers were given to a straits commission under the League of Nations, and the straits area was to be demilitarized after completion of the Allied withdrawal. Turkey was to hold the presidency of the commission, which included the Soviet Union among its members. The capitulations and foreign administration of the Ottoman public debt, which infringed on the sovereignty of Turkey, were abolished. Turkey, however, assumed 40 percent of the Ottoman debt, the remainder being apportioned among other former Ottoman territories. Turkey was also required to maintain low tariffs on imports from signatory powers until 1929. The Treaty of Lausanne reaffirmed the equality of Muslim and non-Muslim Turkish nationals. Turkey and Greece arranged a mandatory exchange of their respective ethnic Greek and Turkish minorities, with the exception of some Greeks in Istanbul and Turks in western Thrace and the Dodecanese Islands. On October 29, 1923, the Grand National Assembly proclaimed the Republic of Turkey. Atatürk was named its president and Ankara its capital, and the modern state of Turkey was born. The Republic of Turkey Ataturk, of "Father of the Turks." As president of Turkey from 1922 to 1928, Ataturk introduced a series of legislative reforms that adopted European legal systems and civil codes and thus overthrew both the Shari'ah and the kanun . He legislated against the Arabic script and converted Turkish writing to the European Roman script. He legislated against the Arabic call to prayer and eliminated the caliphate and all the mystical Sufi orders of Islam. It is not an exaggeration to say that Ataturk is one of the most significant political figures in Islam, for he was the first to theorize and put into practice the secularization of the Islamic state and society. Nothing like it had ever happened in the whole of Islamic history, and, despite the radicality of Ataturks reforms, the Turkish republic has remained an independent and secular Islamic state. Efforts to emulate this secularization, however, have by and large been unsuccessful in other Islamic states. umut arabul 2013 Archaeological and Ethnografical Item Expert, Restorer & Collector & Dealer Master Designer of Jewellery, Author, Traditional Turkish Fine Arts expert. 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